And etc.). Basic goals Mechanization of production- increasing labor productivity and freeing a person from performing difficult, time-consuming and tedious operations. Mechanization of production contributes to the rational and economical use of raw materials, materials and energy, reducing costs and improving product quality. In addition to improving and updating technical means and technology Mechanization of production is inextricably linked with an increase in the level of qualifications and organization of production, a change in the qualifications of workers, and the use of methods of scientific organization of labor. Mechanization of production is one of the main directions of technical progress, ensures the development of productive forces and serves as a material basis for increasing efficiency social production developed by intensive methods.

To technical facilities Mechanization of production include working machines with engines and their transmission devices that perform specified operations, as well as all other machines and mechanisms that do not directly participate in these operations, but are necessary so that a given production process can be carried out at all, for example, ventilation and pumping installations.

Depending on the degree of equipment of production processes with technical means and the type of work, there are partial and complex Mechanization of production

With partial Mechanization of production individual production operations or types of work, mainly the most labor-intensive, are mechanized, while maintaining a significant proportion of manual labor, especially in auxiliary loading and unloading and transport operations.

A higher level is the complex Mechanization of production, in which manual labor is replaced by machine labor at all the main operations of the technological process and auxiliary work of the production process. Integrated Mechanization of production is carried out on the basis of a rational choice of machines and other equipment operating in mutually agreed modes, linked in terms of productivity and ensuring the best performance of a given technological process. Manual labor with integrated Mechanization of production can be retained in separate non-labor-intensive operations, the mechanization of which is not essential for facilitating labor and is not economically feasible. The person also has the functions of managing the production process and control. Integrated Mechanization of production predetermines the possibility of using in-line production methods, improves its quality, ensures the preservation of uniformity, degree of accuracy and constancy of the specified parameters.

The next after the complex Mechanization of production the stage of improvement of production processes is their partial or complete automation (see. Production automation ).

The means of labor, being an integral part of the productive forces, are created and improved in the process of social production. The invention of new tools and the introduction of new technological processes are directly related to the development of natural science and are carried out on the basis of the knowledge and use of its laws. Before industrial revolution 18th-19th centuries the tools of labor remained manual and the number of working tools with which a person could act simultaneously was limited by his natural tools, i.e., the organs of his body. The forces of nature used included water, wind, and domesticated animals. In the manufacturing period preceding the industrial revolution, the division of handicraft labor and its professions, as well as the specialization of tools, reached such a high degree that prerequisites arose for the combination of tools in a machine and the replacement of the worker's hand with a tool by a mechanism. “As a machine,” K. Marx noted, “the means of labor acquires such a material form of existence that causes the replacement of human power by the forces of nature and empirical routine methods by the conscious application of natural science” (Marx K. to Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed. ., vol. 23, p. 397). Improvement of tools and methods of labor, the emergence of a universal steam engine, the use of machines and mechanisms to facilitate labor caused in the late 18th - early 19th centuries. a sharp jump in the level and scale of production. Replacing manual labor in the performance of technological and transport functions, mechanical means of labor were the starting point for technical progress in various industries and played an important role in the formation of the capitalist mode of production. The Industrial Revolution created the conditions for Mechanization of production, primarily weaving, spinning, metal and woodworking. The possibility of using the power of a steam engine to drive a number of working machines led to the creation of a wide variety of transmission mechanisms, which in many cases grew into a widely branched mechanical system.

With an increase in the size of the motor and transmission mechanisms, with the complication of working machines, with the advent of new materials that are difficult to process, there is an objective need to use various machines and mechanisms in the machine-building industry itself. By starting the production of machines by machines, large-scale industry thus created a technical basis equivalent to it. Throughout the 19th century Mechanization of production quickly penetrates not only into individual links of the production process, but also conquers one branch of industry after another, displacing the old traditional forms of production based on manual labor and primitive technology. Mechanized production is becoming widespread in all developed countries.

With the development of large-scale industry, the design is being improved, the power and productivity of means are increasing. Mechanization of production From the end of the 19th century along with the steam engine, a more economical and compact internal combustion engine, which made it possible to create new working and transport machines - tractors, cars, excavators, motor ships, aircraft, etc. New methods of energy conversion are emerging based on the use of steam and hydraulic turbines connected to generators electric current. The development and improvement of electrical machines leads in the first half of the 20th century. to the widespread introduction of group and individual electric drives of working machines in metal-cutting, woodworking, weaving and other machines, forging and pressing, mining, hoisting and transport machines, rolling mills, etc.

In the system of machines, the object of labor sequentially passes through a series of interconnected partial processes that are carried out by a chain of heterogeneous, but mutually complementary machines, mechanisms, and apparatuses. The system of mechanical means of labor leads to continuous flow production in a developed form.

Further development Mechanization of production is aimed at maximizing the intensification of production processes, reducing the technological cycle, releasing work force, implementation of complex mechanization in the most labor-intensive branches of production.

Among the technical means Mechanization of production combined machines have been developed - combines, in which the units located in the technological sequence automatically act on the object of labor. The development of combination, complex mechanization and automation led to the creation automatic lines machines, automatic workshops and automatic plants with high production efficiency.

Under the conditions of capitalist society and the production relations characteristic of it, the instrument of labor, acting as a machine, immediately becomes a competitor of the worker, one of the main means of his exploitation and the most powerful weapon in the hands of the capitalists to suppress the indignations of the workers. “... The introduction of machines increased the division of labor within society, simplified the functions of the worker inside the workshop, increased the concentration of capital, and further dismembered the person” (Marx K., ibid., vol. 4, p. 158). The expediency of using new means of production under capitalism is ensured by the fact that their value must be lower than the value of the labor power they replace.

In a socialist society, machines and all other technical means of labor mechanization are created and used not for competitive purposes and not for the exploitation of the worker, but to increase labor productivity, the economic efficiency of social production, to facilitate and improve the conditions of labor processes, which is ultimately aimed at increasing material well-being and cultural level of the people. “Earlier,” V.I. Lenin wrote, “the whole human mind, all its genius created only in order to give some all the benefits of technology and culture, and to deprive others of the most necessary - enlightenment and culture. Now all the wonders of technology, all the achievements of culture will become the property of the whole people, and from now on the human mind and genius will never be turned into means of profit, into means of exploitation” (Poln. sobr. soch., 5th ed., vol. 35, p. 289).

Under the conditions of a planned socialist economy, the most favorable conditions are created for rational use Mechanization of production as the basis of technical progress in industry and agriculture. “Large-scale machine industry and its transfer to agriculture is the only economic basis for socialism...” (V. I. Lenin, Poln. sobr. soch., 5th ed., vol. 44, p. 135). In a socialist society Mechanization of production is a powerful instrument of man for the all-round facilitation of labor and the steady growth of social production. The introduction of mechanization in the socialist national economy also takes place when it results not only in a material effect, but also in an improvement in working conditions and an increase in its safety. Contributing to the elimination of heavy manual labor, shortening the working day and raising the cultural, technical and material level of the working people, Mechanization of production plays an important role in the implementation of the scientific organization of production, in erasing the essential differences between mental and physical labor.

IN THE USSR Mechanization of production was the basis for the industrialization of the country and the collectivization of agriculture; it determines the rate of productivity growth social labor on the basis of further development of complex mechanization and automation of production processes.

Implementation Mechanization of production depends primarily on equipping industry, construction, transport, and agriculture with the most advanced machines, mechanisms and devices (see table). The production of machines, mechanisms, installations and equipment in the leading industries (power and electrical engineering, machine tool building, mining and chemical engineering) developed at the highest rates in the USSR. High growth rates are also characteristic of instrument making, production of radio equipment, automation equipment and computer science, electrical household machines and mechanisms.

Development of the production of some of the most important means of mechanization in the USSR

Level and efficiency Mechanization of production a particular branch of production or process is in practice evaluated according to various indicators. Such indicators can be: the level of mechanization of labor, the level of mechanization of work, the mechanization and power-to-weight ratio of labor, etc. The level (coefficient) of mechanization and labor is understood as the share of mechanized labor in the total labor costs for the manufacture of certain products or for the performance of work on the site, workshop, enterprise, etc. This indicator is determined by the ratio of the time spent on the implementation of mechanized and handmade. A similar purpose has an indicator of the degree of coverage of workers by mechanized labor, which is determined by the ratio of the number of workers performing work in a mechanized way to the total number of workers. The specificity of some types of production necessitates the introduction of such an indicator as the level (coefficient) of mechanization of work - the ratio of the volume of products made in a mechanized way to the total volume of products. This indicator is used in the foundry and forging industries, in transport and construction work, etc. The mechanical-labor ratio of labor is usually estimated by the cost of machines and mechanisms in production, per worker on average. The power-to-labor ratio (or, in some cases, the electrical-to-labor ratio) is expressed as the ratio of the amount of mechanical and electrical (or only electrical) energy consumed in the production process per 1 man-hour worked or per 1 worker. These indicators are used conditionally for a comparative assessment of the mechanization of individual processes. When choosing technical means Mechanization of production, the cost of which is included in the capital costs and is transferred to the cost of the product for the entire period of their use, the following are taken into account: weight and dimensions, payback period, energy consumption, reliability in operation, wear resistance of components and parts, maintaining the constancy of the main parameters over the entire period of operation, speed of adjustment, ability to to readjustment for other similar operations, ease of maintenance, technical inspection and repair.

Mechanization of production in the branches of the national economy of the USSR. The creation of a large-scale socialist industry capable of solving the most complex scientific and technical problems and national economic problems is the greatest achievement of the Soviets. people, the triumph of Lenin's ideas of socialist industrialization. The major measures for the mechanization of work in various branches of the national economy carried out during the years of Soviet power are of revolutionary importance. Thousands of samples of modern high-performance machine-tools have been developed and introduced into production. Machine systems are being created for the comprehensive mechanization and automation of the main production processes in industry, construction, agriculture and transport. On the basis of raising the technical level of production, the use of manual and heavy, as well as unskilled labor in all branches of the national economy is being consistently reduced. At the same time, the need for technical means to complete complex mechanization in all sectors is steadily increasing.

Mechanization of production in the energy sector is associated with the commissioning of large power plants and the creation of unified energy systems. Consolidation of the capacity of power plants can significantly reduce the cost of labor, materials and fuel for the production of electricity, apply effective means control, regulation and management of both individual units and power plants as a whole. The energy capacities of the USSR will increase mainly through the construction of thermal power plants with large power units with a capacity of 300, 500, 800 MW, and in the future with a capacity of 1000 MW and higher. The maintenance of such power units is completely mechanized, which significantly reduces the need for labor force per unit of installed capacity. Mechanization of production in the thermal power industry, it is aimed at improving the means of preparing, loading, supplying fuel, methods of water purification, ash removal, etc. Turbines with a capacity of 500 MW(Bratskaya HPP) and turbines with a capacity of 630 MW(for the Sayano-Shushenskaya HPP). On the nuclear power plants reactor plants with a capacity of 1000 MW and more. Distinctive feature nuclear energy is a complex mechanization and automation of technological processes, which allows, due to the reduction of labor and material costs, to ensure its high competitiveness in relation to traditional energy industries.

In the mining industry Mechanization of production is aimed at reducing the time for opening, preparing and putting into operation new deposits and horizons, as well as at reducing the cost of maintaining workings in working condition, which is associated with the expansion of complexity in the mechanized processes of underground and open pit mining. In the mines, high-performance narrow-cut combines and plows are used, working in combination with moving face conveyors and individual metal or hydroficated roof supports (see Fig. Coal complexes ). As a result of the introduction of machines and mechanisms, in 1972 the level of mechanization of coal heaping in flat and inclined faces was over 90%; delivery of coal, underground haulage of coal and rock and loading of coal into the railway. wagons are fully mechanized. Methods are being introduced deserted coal mining, providing a significant increase in labor productivity. Developing coal mining hydraulically (see. Hydromechanization ). Developing rapidly open pit mining using an integrated Mechanization of production based on high-performance equipment: draglines, bucket-wheel excavators, transport and dump bridges, powerful dump trucks, electric locomotives, dump cars, diesel trolley trucks, etc.

In the gas and oil industry, the use of high-performance products Mechanization of production contributed to an increase in oil and gas production and an increase in their share in the country's fuel balance. Powerful drilling equipment is used in the oil fields, including installations for drilling deep wells, complex hydroficated drilling rigs are being introduced with discrete tripping operations, mechanization and automation of all drilling processes. Oil-producing enterprises continue to be equipped with block-complete automated units, which provide significant savings in labor, money and time. Increasing the level of mechanization and industrialization of the construction of gas fields, underground gas storage facilities, gas processing plants is ensured by the use of block and block-complete technological installations, prefabricated buildings and structures with metal frames. For gas transportation, gas pipelines with a diameter of 1420 are widely used. mm at working pressure 7.5 MN/m 2 . As a result of the introduction of complex mechanization and automation, the compressor stations of gas pipelines being built in the Arctic and other hard-to-reach regions of the country operate practically without service personnel.

In metallurgy Mechanization of production is aimed at completing the mechanization of individual labor-intensive work and the implementation of a comprehensive Mechanization of production in blast-furnace, steel-smelting and rolling shops. The most difficult work at the hearths of blast furnaces, all the necessary operations for servicing tapholes, have been mechanized. The production of mechanized equipment for servicing blast furnaces with a volume of 3200 m 3, a complex of mechanized equipment for blast furnaces with a volume of 5000 m 3. The operation of new units with increased blast pressure and the use of oxygen makes it possible to accelerate the melting process, reduce fuel consumption and improve the quality of cast iron. In steelmaking, advanced filling machines are used, the processes of breaking and laying ladle linings, loading large-capacity electric furnaces are being mechanized, the use of systems for automatically controlling the oxygen consumption in converters, monitoring the carbon content in metal, control systems for the thermal regime of open-hearth furnaces, etc. is expanding. The converter method of steel smelting will be further developed using converters with a capacity of 250-300 T and continuous casting of steel with a high level of integrated Mechanization of production To improve the quality of steel, the development of such mechanized processes as metal processing with synthetic slags, out-of-furnace evacuation, electroslag and vacuum remelting of metal is envisaged. For new technological processes, machines and equipment have been created that operate on the principle of automatic control of production processes and complex mechanization of operations for preparing charge, loading aggregates and pouring metals. Natural gas is widely used in steelmaking. In rolling production, complex-mechanized hot and cold mills are put into operation. cold rolling sheet steel with aggregate lines for applying metal and non-metal coatings to sheets; it is planned to create precision and special mills for the production of high-precision rolled products and economical profiles, mechanized and automated lines for finishing (adjusting), straightening, sorting, stacking and packaging of sheet and rolled products.

In mechanical engineering Mechanization of production is mainly related to the quantitative composition and structure of the metalworking equipment fleet, because the most time-consuming operations in the manufacture of products are the operations of machining parts. In mass machine-building production, complex mechanization of machining processes is carried out through the use of modular, special and specialized machine tools, automatic and semi-automatic machines. The fleet of machine tools for electrophysical and electrochemical processing methods is expanding, making it possible to replace many laborious, tedious and even unhealthy manual operations in the manufacture of dies, molds, turbine blades, carbide tools, as well as parts of a particularly complex shape or from materials that are difficult to process with conventional tools. , the use of machine tools with numerical program management and adaptive devices, and in the future it is planned to create and apply various kinds programmable manipulators And robots. On the Mechanization of production in mechanical engineering, the development of the production of blanks, in shape and size as close as possible to finished parts, will have a significant impact. For this purpose, the reconstruction of existing and the creation of new specialized enterprises for the production of castings and forgings is carried out. The specific gravity of metal forming is increasing (see. Forging and stamping production ). For foundry equipment will be created in the form of technological kits, for example, equipment for sand preparation sites, equipment kits for investment casting, mechanized lines for molding, pouring, knocking out castings, etc. The complex Mechanization of production in the processes of welding, heat treatment of parts, assembly of machines.

Significant impact on the level Mechanization of production in mechanical engineering, the unification and standardization of units and parts for general machine-building applications (bearings, gearboxes, couplings, flanges, chains, etc.), as well as normalized tools and standard equipment, the manufacture of which is organized at specialized enterprises, is widely developed.

On lifting and transport and loading and unloading works Mechanization of production achieved by applying cranes , reloaders, means of floor handling equipment, containers , construction lifts , elevators , cableways, monorail feeding systems. The number of lifting and transport vehicles also includes small-scale mechanization: blocks, crampons, chain hoists, and other lifting mechanisms. The choice of mechanization means for lifting and transporting and loading and unloading operations is determined by the type of cargo (piece, long, liquid, bulk), type of vehicles (wagons, ships, cars), containers, volume of work performed, distance of movement of goods and lifting height. Of great importance is the complexity and mutual conformity of the methods of lifting, moving, loading, unloading and stowage of goods at the points of departure and arrival. The volume of these types of work depends on the number of cargo transshipments. The level of mechanization of hoisting and transport and loading and unloading operations is determined by the ratio of the number of goods processed with the help of mechanization to the total volume of processed goods. Important for reducing labor costs at industrial enterprises is the introduction of mechanization to completely replace manual labor in the intrashop and intershop loading and unloading of materials, parts, semi-finished products, loading and unloading railway. wagons, trucks and trailers, stacking semi-finished products and finished products in shop and factory warehouses. Key ways to implement an integrated Mechanization of production of these works: the rational organization of the warehouse economy of enterprises, the maximum approximation of warehouses to consumer shops, the combination of transport and storage operations with technological processes main production; equipment of loading bays

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Topic 13. Assembly of devices, modern methods of mechanization and automation of production processes

Tests of assembled products

Testing of assembled products is the final control operation of the quality of their manufacture. Machines are tested under conditions approaching operating conditions. All types of tests can be carried to acceptance, control and special.

During acceptance tests, the actual operational characteristics of the machine are revealed (accuracy, productivity, power, speed, accelerations, angles, energy costs, etc.), as well as the correct operation of various mechanisms and devices of the machine.

Control tests are carried out on products that have previously been found to have defects. With particularly high requirements for products, they are subjected to a run-in after assembly and tested. Then disassemble (partially or completely), check the condition of the parts, reassemble and subject to short-term control tests.

Special tests are performed to study wear, check the failure-free operation of individual devices, establish the suitability of new grades of materials for critical parts, and investigate other phenomena in machines. Special tests are very long. Their program is developed depending on the purpose of the test. These tests are subjected not only to assembled products, but also to their components (gearboxes, pumps). Tests are carried out on special stands.

One of the main directions for improving the technology of instrumentation is to reduce the degree of employment of workers during maintenance. technological equipment by increasing the level of mechanization and automation of production processes. Let us establish a number of definitions related to the mechanization and automation of production.

Mechanization- the direction of development of production, characterized by the use in the production process of machines and devices (devices) that replace the physical labor of the worker.

Mechanization can be partial or complete.

Partial mechanization or, as it is often called, small mechanization - this is the mechanization of part of the movements that are necessary for the implementation of the production process: either the main movement, or auxiliary and installation movements, or movements associated with the movement of parts (assemblies, products) from one working position to another.

Complete or complex mechanization- mechanization of all main, auxiliary and transport movements that are performed during the production process. With full mechanization, the worker exercises only operational control of production processes (switching on and off at the right moments the required mechanisms and controlling the mode and nature of their work). Full or complex mechanization of production processes creates the conditions and is a necessary prerequisite for the automation of production.

Automation- the direction of development of production, characterized by the release of the worker not only from physical efforts to perform certain movements that are part of the production process, but also from operational management mechanism for these movements.

The degree of automation of production processes can be different.

Partial automation there is the automation of part of the operation for managing the production process, provided that the other part of the control operations is performed by the worker.

Complete or complex automation characterized by the automatic execution of all functions of the production process control. The duties of a worker include only setting up a machine or a group of machines and control systems, turning on and monitoring the operation of machines. Thus, the various stages of mechanization and automation are determined by the interaction of man and machine, i.e., the continuity of the production process. The greater the degree of continuity, the more automated the production process and the more perfect this automatic system.

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• Introduction
• Chapter I. General principles of mechanization of production processes
• Chapter II. Methodology for calculating indicators of the level of mechanization and automation, mechanical and power-to-weight ratio (on the example of road construction)
• Chapter III. Labor productivity in the conditions of complex mechanization
• Conclusion
• List of used literature

Introduction

The mechanization of production makes it possible to increase labor productivity, freeing a person from performing difficult, labor-intensive and tedious operations. Particularly relevant is the problem of mechanization of labor in industries that are harmful and dangerous to human health.

The mechanization of production contributes to the rational and economical use of raw materials, materials and energy, the reduction of costs and the improvement of product quality. Along with the improvement and renewal of technical means and technologies, the mechanization of production is inextricably linked with an increase in the level of qualification and organization of production, and a change in the qualifications of workers.

This paper considers a technical and economic assessment of the level of mechanization of work (on the example of road construction).

The successful construction of each highway largely depends on the quality of the organization of work, on how rationally the workers, machines, and transport will be used.

At present, methods for an objective comprehensive assessment of the quality of organizational work have not yet been developed, and there is no single indicator that could be used to give an exhaustive assessment of the level of organization of work. The structure of specialized units, the choice of mechanization for their equipment, the procedure for interaction, the system of supply of materials, the provision of transport and other organizational factors have a complex effect on the timing, quality and cost of construction.

Chapter I. General principles of mechanization of production processes

The mechanization of production labor is the replacement of muscular human energy through the use of mechanical machines and mechanisms that are set in motion by various engines. With the help of mechanization, hard physical labor can be eliminated.

Complex mechanization is the highest level of mechanization. With such mechanization, systems of machines and mechanisms are used, which are interconnected in terms of productivity, ensure the performance of technical and production control operations. Complex mechanization allows you to move on to automation, both conventional and complex.

In the automation of production, instruments, machines and devices are used that perform production actions without the use of physical strength person, but the work is carried out under his control. The system does not require sufficient periodic monitoring of the progress of work by the constant presence of an employee.

Integrated automation is automatic systems, providing control and management of processes without human intervention using the specified work parameters. A person is assigned only the function of a controller of the progress of processes, the operation of equipment and automation.

Automation is most commonly used in large industries with the mass nature of the work. Widespread in both the meat and dairy industries. In such industries, there are a large number of lines that perform one technological function. Workshops and factories are being comprehensively automated.

As a result of reducing the humanity of labor to a minimum, the number of industrial injuries is practically zero. Most of the accidents are related to the repair and adjustment of equipment, as well as to the irrational arrangement of equipment and the organization of workplaces. Thus, a large number of automated and mechanized labor can reduce injuries at work. Also, automation and mechanization can eliminate the work of a person in harmful and difficult working conditions.

Mechanization and automation are required not only in large productions of the same type. It is also necessary for enterprises with single and small-scale production. Currently, there are a huge number of automated lines that make it easier and safer for the worker. The ability to quickly re-equip such lines allows them to be used in a wide variety of production processes.

In small-scale production, efficiency and productivity can be increased through the widespread use of machine tools with special program management. In small-scale production, most of the worker's time is spent reading and choosing the best version of the drawing. An automated software system allows you to free the worker from these operations, the system will make the choice of an acceptable mode of operation before the start of the production process. All information about the shape, size of the part and other information is transmitted to the worker using a magnetic tape or card directly to the machine.

Software control is increasingly being used by modular reconfigurable machines, universal, wide profile for their automation. When working with program control, the worker starts the machine and removes the finished product. Thus, the presence of a worker in the danger zone of the machine is excluded. All of the above actions are performed with the working units turned off.

Machine complexes are several connected centers into a single machine system using a variety of devices, each of which runs on a corresponding program. Manual labor is kept to a minimum.

When automating technological processes, much attention is paid to loading. Even the use of machine complexes cannot free the worker from heavy loading and unloading work. Mechanized loading reduces the amount of manual labor by almost half due to the transformation of conventional equipment into automated ones. Such machines are used both independently and are built into automatic lines. Loading and unloading is most often combined with machine clamping devices, so manual work takes place away from the hazardous work area.

In manual measurement, the worker puts his or her hands at risk by bringing them into a potentially hazardous area. Manual control operations are the most common cause of work-related injuries. Work safety is carried out by automated operational control using various devices. For continuous measurement, automatic and semi-automatic machines are used.

Semi-automatic devices track changes and, upon reaching the required indicators, give light signals. In this case, the worker only needs to make a stop. Automatic devices themselves include working movements of the device to achieve the required indicators.

Thus, the technological process frees the worker not only from hard physical labor, but also from constant nervous tension associated with the potential danger of his work. This can be easily achieved by switching to automatic and mechanical manual labor. The use of modern developments and the release of a person from manual operations will help to avoid injuries in the process of work, which is an improvement in labor safety.

Chapter II. Methodology for calculating indicators of the level of mechanization and automation, mechanical and power-to-weight ratio (on the example of road construction)

The duration of the construction of the highway and the timing of putting it into permanent operation simultaneously throughout its entire length or separately for sections are established based on the general tasks of developing the national economy of a given region (district, republic) or on the needs of individual large facilities (mine, hydroelectric power station, etc.). ) for which the road is intended to serve.

In order to prevent the dissipation of funds and the rise in the cost of work, inevitable in the case of protracted periods of work, as well as to reduce the damage caused to the national economy by the absence of well-maintained roads, norms have been established for the duration of the construction of highways of the general network, constructed at the expense of state capital investments.

For highways being built in particularly difficult conditions, the duration of construction in each particular case is determined by the construction organization project.

These conditions include the construction of roads:

Ш in I climatic zone;

Ш in swampy areas with the length of sections in swamps more than 25% of the total length of the road;

Ш in mountainous areas with an average profile volume of earthworks per 1 km over 70 thousand m 3 for roads of category II, 50 thousand m 3 - * category III, 40 thousand m 3 - category IV and 30 thousand m 3 -- Category V;

Ш I technical category;

Ш within cities (taking into account the development of the adjacent territory).

Capital investments are distributed over the years of construction in such a way as to provide a real opportunity for road construction organizations to carry out all preparatory work in a timely manner. For all facilities with a standard construction period of 24 months or more, capital investments are distributed for a period of one year more than the construction period. Moreover, for the first year of construction, they allocate for the implementation preparatory work and the turn of the main works is only 10% of the estimated cost of the object.

The capital investments of the last year of construction are also reduced against the average values. Such a distribution was adopted in order to enable builders to complete all the work without attracting additional resources and put the road into permanent operation no later than the end of the III or, in extreme cases, at the beginning of the IV quarter. At the same time, work should be launched at the new facility.

An increase in the duration of construction in excess of the established norms is unacceptable. Reducing the duration of construction, in the absence of excess resources, indicates a high level of organization of work, good use of workers and mechanization and positively characterizes the activity of the road construction organization.

If there is a territorial road construction organization in the area of ​​future construction, which is scheduled to be entrusted with the construction of a new road, the construction time is often determined based on its production capabilities. The scope of work to be performed by the available fleet of construction and transport vehicles, as well as the deadlines for their completion, are calculated, providing for the implementation of annual directive norms by all machines.

The duration of construction determined in this way should not exceed the normative one. If it turns out to be more, then the construction organization allocates additional material and technical resources to ensure the completion of construction within the standard time frame.

The level of mechanization U m (in%) is usually determined by the ratio of the amount of work performed by machines to their total volume;

where Q M is the volume of mechanized work, in physical units of measurement (m 3, running m, t, etc.) or in value terms (rubles); Q -- the amount of all work in the same units.

In physical units of measurement, this formula allows you to determine the level of mechanization only for certain types of work, for example, earthworks, stone preparation, and asphalt concrete laying. To determine the general level of mechanization of the entire construction or any complex of various types of work, the numerical values ​​of the volume of work, characterized by different units of measurement, are replaced by their cost expressions. Then Q M -- the cost of mechanized work; Q - the cost of all work.

In road construction, the highest (close to 100%) indicators of the level of mechanization were achieved in earthworks, the preparation of cement concrete and bitumen-mineral mixtures, the construction of asphalt concrete and cement concrete pavements, the extraction and processing of stone. At the same time, work on the installation of coatings from small piece materials: cobblestone, stone checker, paving stones, clinker is not completely mechanized. Strengthening and finishing works, installation of borders, index signs and fences are not sufficiently mechanized.

In some cases, due to the imperfection of existing mechanization tools, it is necessary to manually perform additional maintenance of the main mechanized process. So, in the construction of cement concrete pavements, it is often necessary to allocate several workers for additional manual work on laying, straightening and dismantling rail forms, laying out bituminous paper, installing reinforcement, etc. As a result, despite the high level of mechanization of the main types of work in road construction , a large number of workers are still busy with manual work. The volumes they carry out are a small part of total volumes of all construction works, but the workers employed in these works still occupy a significant share in the total number of workers at road facilities. But this indicator, when formally calculated, characterizes only the quantitative level of mechanization and does not give its qualitative characteristics and does not reflect the degree of perfection of the machines used. At two construction sites, equipped in one case with outdated mechanization tools with low productivity, and in the other with modern, high-performance ones, formally the same indicators of the level of mechanization can take place. Therefore, to fully characterize the level and quality of mechanization of work, additional indicators are usually determined:

Ш mechano-labor ratio of construction and mechano-labor ratio of labor;

Ø power-to-weight ratio of construction and power-to-labor ratio;

III degree of coverage of workers by mechanized labor.

mechanical armament construction M c is the ratio of the average annual cost, expressed as a percentage. of all machines C m available in construction, to annual plan construction and installation works P s _m.r:

Mechanized labor (mechanical armament of the 1st worker) is defined as the cost of all machines per worker:

where N p , is the number of workers employed in one shift.

In case of unequal workload of workers and machines in different shifts, data is received for the shift in which more workers work.

The disadvantage of mechanized-to-weight ratio indicators is that they are determined by the cost of machines. The cost only very approximately characterizes the productivity of machines. More clearly reflect production capacity construction organization indicators of energy availability.

Power-to-weight ratio construction E call the power of all engines available in construction, per 1 million rubles. annual plan of construction and installation works:

where SP M is the power of the entire fleet of road construction machines, kW.

Power-to-weight ratio labor E tr is the ratio of the total costs of all types of energy used in construction to the number of man-days worked:

where E E is the sum of energy costs of all types, expressed in the same meters, most often in kWh; Echel.-days - the sum of man-days worked on construction.

Sometimes the power-to-weight ratio of a worker Er (by analogy with the mechanical-to-weight ratio) is defined as the ratio of the sum of the capacities of all engines available on the construction site to the average number of workers working in the first shift (with a large number of workers):

mechanization industrial automation power-to-weight ratio

- Degree coverage workers mechanized labor Y 0 p is characterized by the ratio of the number of workers employed on machines Np M to the total number of all workers N p (in,%):

The number of workers employed on machines includes not only the drivers directly operating the machines, but also the auxiliary and service staff: mechanics on duty, electricians, etc. Do not include in the value of N pM workers engaged in various types of work performed manually and providing normal work machines, for example, workers engaged in the manual layout of rebar.

The development of modern road engineering already makes it possible to automate a number of road construction works. Automation has been especially successful in manufacturing enterprises road construction (asphalt and cement concrete plants, various bases and landfills).

Level automation U a is determined by the ratio of the volume of work performed by automated equipment, expressed as a percentage Q a, to the total amount of work at the facility;

Automation of construction processes can be successfully carried out only on the basis of complex mechanization of work. “Therefore, the indicator of the level of automation cannot be higher than the indicator of the level of complex mechanization of work.

When calculating the required number of mechanization tools for a construction site, they check the possibility of rational use of all machines required by the requirements of the work production technology. At the same time, the development of an annual directive norm by each list machine should be ensured. The data of these calculations are the limits limiting the supply of mechanization means for the construction.

When comparing various options for providing construction with mechanization and construction personnel, preference is usually given to the option that has:

Ø the highest indicators of the level of integrated mechanization and automation; if these indicators are low for all options, the indicator of the level of non-complex mechanization is taken into account;

Ш ensured the fulfillment and overfulfillment of annual directive norms by the entire fleet of vehicles;

Ø high indicators of the degree of coverage of workers by mechanized labor;

Ø mechanical-to-weight ratio of construction and power-to-weight ratio per 1 million rubles. (or per unit of physical volume) of work performed will be the smallest;

The mechanical and power-to-weight ratio of labor (one worker) will be the highest.

In this case, in construction:

a) the smallest number of workers will be employed, i.e., the labor intensity indicator will be the smallest;

b) manual work will be minimized or even completely eliminated;

c) the cost of equipping a construction organization with mechanization and energy will be the lowest, and their use will be quite effective.

To ensure the conditions for complex-mechanized earthworks at several sites during the year, it is required to select the necessary sets of machines in advance. If the composition and structure of the machine park of the contracting construction organization conducting these works do not allow the formation of the required number of sets of machines, then when calculating the need for machines, the range and number of missing types of machines planned for delivery are determined. A schematic diagram of the selection of sets of machines for construction projects included in the annual plan of the contractor is as follows. All objects are grouped according to space-planning characteristics and the planned technology for the production of work. The scope of work is distributed among groups of objects that have the same characteristics. The nomenclature of construction processes is compiled for each type of work. From the initial nomenclature of machines, the composition and structure of technological sets of machines are selected.

For complex objects and in the presence of small-scale dispersed work, the kits include universal construction machines based on mobile tractors equipped with sets of removable attachments.

The main conditions for the correct acquisition of machines for earthworks in a complex-mechanized way are as follows: - the number of machines involved in the technological process should be minimal, and their design and parameters should be fully consistent with the working conditions, the nature and dimensions of the structure being built; - as part of each set of machines, one or more leading ones are singled out, which mainly determine the organization of work of the entire set of machines, its productivity and the pace of work; - the composition of the set of machines must ensure the continuity of the flow of soil from the place of its development to the place of filling into an embankment or dump; the performance of each included machine must provide the most efficient work leading (or leading) machine.

Failure to comply with the latter condition entails a decrease in the productivity of the entire set of machines to the level of the least productive machine. In this case, the main indicator of the effectiveness of complex mechanization - the cost of excavation - may turn out to be higher than with the mechanization of only some processes.

Simultaneously with the complex mechanization of work in some industries, the complex mechanization of types of construction is intensively developing, especially linear structures, such as automobile and railways, power lines, main pipelines. This provides for the implementation of a set of works by sets of machines interconnected in terms of productivity and other indicators.

Comprehensive mechanization of works and types of construction is ensured by a complete selection of machines in preparation for construction and maintenance of their completeness during operation. The relationship of groups of machines that provide comprehensive mechanization of construction characterizes its structure, which can be simple (sequential) and combined).

The composition of the sets of machines, in addition to the leading and auxiliary ones, includes reserve machines. Backup machines are used when the leading and auxiliary machines fail.

Chapter III. Labor productivity in the conditions of complex mechanization

Labor productivity is the quantity of output produced by a worker per unit of time. The quantity of products manufactured per unit of time by a brigade or the entire construction organization characterizes the collective labor productivity of the brigade or the entire construction organization. In mechanized subdivisions, the productivity of individual machines or their entire complex is also determined. An increase in labor productivity is expressed in an increase in products manufactured per unit of time, with the number of workers unchanged.

Labor productivity indicators are an important assessment of the quality of projects for the organization of construction and work, as well as the quality of operational management of construction and all activities of construction organizations.

In road construction, two main indicators of labor productivity are used: a) labor intensity; b) output per worker.

Labor intensity call the cost of working time in man-days. (or man-hours) for the manufacture of a unit of construction products. When determining the labor intensity of one type of work, construction products are measured in physical indicators(1 m 3 earthworks, 1 m 2 pavement, etc.),. Labor intensity indicator T R - one type of "work is determined by the formula

where E man-days - the total number of man-days spent on the performance of a certain type of work; Q - the volume of construction products received as a result of the costs of a given number of man-days.

To assess the labor intensity of the final product of road construction, the costs of working time (in man-days) necessary for the construction of the entire road or an average of 1 km are determined. In the latter case, the amount of construction products will be equal to the length of the finished road (in km). To compare the labor intensity of the construction of objects of various technical categories, as well as to determine the labor intensity of a complex of various works that do not have a common meter or do not represent a completed structure, they find the number of man-days required on average to perform work for 1 million rubles. In this case, the value of the quantity of production is replaced by its cost (million rubles). The lower the labor intensity index, the higher the level of work organization.

Working out on the one working call the amount of construction products (in physical units or value terms) per employee per unit of time on average. There are output indicators "per shift, month, quarter and year. The output indicator reflects the working conditions during the period for which it is determined. Therefore, to assess the overall level of organization of work of large teams, it is advisable to determine the output for long periods - a quarter and a year. The output indicator IN per worker is determined by the formula

where Q is the amount of work performed over the period of time for which the output is determined (per year, quarter, etc.). For a complex of various types of work, the values ​​of volumes replace their total cost in rubles; N pc -- the average annual (quarterly) number of employees.

The average annual (quarterly) number of employees includes all workers employed in these construction and installation works, at manufacturing enterprises serving these works, engineering and technical workers, employees, junior service personnel, security guards and students.

In most cases, the higher the output per 1 worker, the higher the level of work organization. But it should be borne in mind that the numerical expression of output increases when expensive materials are used, as well as when there are no own production enterprises and when all the materials, semi-finished products and products necessary for construction are received from other organizations. Under such conditions, a high output rate is still “sufficient for a positive assessment of the organization of work.

The level of labor productivity and its increase depend on logistical and socio-economic factors. The main material and technical factors are:

Ш introduction into production of new achievements of science and technology;

Ø increase in the level of mechanization and automation of production;

Ø improvement of work production technology;

Ø the use of more advanced and more productive machines;

Ø improvement of operational management of production, introduction of dispatching, transition to automated control systems;

Ш timely supply of construction and auxiliary materials High Quality;

W high quality and detailed development of projects for the organization of construction and production of works.

The main socio-economic factors include:

Ш use of working time;

Ш level of qualification of workers;

Ш Ensuring the correct rationing of work and financial incentives for exceeding the norms;

Ø ensuring a high level of labor protection and safety;

Ш stability of workers.

Both groups of factors are interrelated. Thus, the improvement of work technology usually provides for better use of working time; the use of more complex machines (or automation of production processes) requires highly qualified workers for their maintenance, etc. Therefore, measures aimed at increasing labor productivity, as a rule, simultaneously cover several factors from both groups.

Main end result increasing labor productivity is to reduce construction time and reduce the cost of construction work.

In the event that measures to increase labor productivity require additional special capital investments, they economic efficiency are determined by comparing the reduced costs of the use of new and old (replaced) methods of work.

The greatest growth in labor productivity in construction is usually achieved by raising the level of mechanization, the transition from the selective use of machines to the comprehensive mechanization and automation of work, the introduction of new, more advanced machines into production, and the modernization of existing machines.

The increase in labor productivity due to an increase in the level of mechanization of work (P m.t.) can be determined by the formula

where E t; 3 -- savings in labor costs as a percentage of the total labor intensity of the work performed;

where P -- the number of types of work; Г r and Г m - the labor intensity of a unit, Works performed manually and mechanized; Q p and Qp - the amount of work performed manually before and after increasing the level of mechanization; Q M and qm -- volumes of mechanized Works performed before and after increasing the level of mechanization.

Conclusion

As a conclusion on the work, it can be indicated that to assess the level of organization of work in the construction of roads, a number of technical and economic indicators characterizing certain aspects of the overall organization of construction. The main of these indicators are the following:

duration, cost and rhythm;

the level of mechanization and automation of work; mechanical and power-to-weight ratio;

labor productivity;

use of fixed assets.

The listed indicators are used both to assess the actual level of organization of work in construction, and to select the best option when drawing up construction organization projects.

With a fuzzy advantage (in a system of a large number of indicators) of any option, decisions are made on two or three indicators that are the most important for this object. In most cases, these defining indicators are the duration and estimated cost of construction. Often, the amount of required resources and the level of use of fixed construction funds are also taken into account. In particular, the planning of the volume of construction and installation work is usually carried out, focusing on existing road construction organizations equipped with a certain fleet of machines, vehicles, etc.

The reduction of manual labor is a complex and multifaceted process that requires the implementation of complex organizational, technical, economic and social measures. The transformation of manual labor can be traced by highlighting the stages of its mechanization and automation.

At the first stage, partial mechanization is carried out, covering individual production operations or types of work, mainly associated with heavy physical labor. Examples of mechanization are: the use of threading machines instead of a screwdriver, the use of pneumatic or hydraulically driven chucks instead of the usual manual helical movement of the jaws with a wrench, etc.

The development of technology, the emergence of new machines and equipment made it possible to solve the problem of reducing manual labor at a different level. So, for example, in metalworking, the emergence of multi-position machine tools with numerical control made it possible to perform a large number of various operations, but in order to transfer a part to another machine, human intervention is necessary. The appearance of robotic complexes made it possible to organize a single automatically operating complex, where the role of a person was reduced to its maintenance.

List of used literature

1. Konoplyanko V. I. Organization and security traffic M.: Transport, 2009 - 183 p.

2. Mogilevich V.M. Fundamentals of the organization of road construction works M .: Higher School, 2009 - 288 p.

3. Polosin-Nikitin S. M. Fundamentals of construction and operation of highways M.: Transport, 2008 - 248 p.

4. Simonin S. Yu., Kotov Yu.V. Visual images in the design of roads M .: Transport, 2010 - 159 p.

5. Operation of road machines / ed. A. M. Sheinina M.: Transport, 2010 - 328 p.

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Essence, features, purposes of application and methods of socio-psychological methods of management. Systems of mechanization and automation of managerial work, their concept, directions, groups and necessity. Motivation and control as the main functions of management.

Mechanization and automation of production processes- This is a set of measures that provide for the widespread replacement of manual operations by machines and mechanisms, the introduction of automatic machine tools, individual lines and industries.

Mechanization of production processes means the replacement of manual labor by machines, mechanisms and other equipment.

The mechanization of production is constantly developing and improving, passing from lower to higher forms: from manual labor to partial, small and complex mechanization and further to the highest form of mechanization - automation.

In mechanized production, a significant part of labor operations is performed by machines and mechanisms, a smaller part - manually. This partial (non-complex) mechanization, in which there may be separate weakly mechanized links.

Integrated mechanization- this is a way to perform the entire complex of works included in a given production cycle, machines and mechanisms.

The highest degree of mechanization is automation of production processes, which allows you to carry out the entire cycle of work without the direct participation of a person in it, only under his control.

Automation is a new type of production, which is prepared by the cumulative development of science and technology, primarily the transfer of production to electronic basis, through the use of electronics and new advanced technical means. The need for automation of production is caused by the inability of human organs to control complex technological processes with the necessary speed and accuracy. Huge energy capacities, high speeds, ultra-high and ultra-low temperature conditions turned out to be subject only to automatic control and management.

At present, with a high level of mechanization of the main production processes (80%) in most industries, auxiliary processes are still insufficiently mechanized (25-40), many works are performed manually. The largest number auxiliary workers are used in transport and movement of goods, in loading and unloading operations. If, however, we take into account that the labor productivity of one such worker is almost 20 times lower than that of a worker employed in complex mechanized areas, then the acuteness of the problem of further mechanization of auxiliary work becomes obvious. In addition, it is necessary to take into account the fact that the mechanization of auxiliary work in industry is 3 times cheaper than the main one.

But the main and most important form is production automation. At present, computing machines are becoming more and more decisive in all areas of science and technology. In the future, these machines will become the basis of production automation and will control automation.

The creation of new automatic technology will mean a broad transition from three-link machines (working machine - transmission - engine) to four-link machine systems. The fourth link is cybernetic devices, with the help of which huge powers are controlled.

The main stages of automation of production are: semiautomatic devices, automatic lines, automatic lines, sections - and workshops - automatic machines, factories - and automatic factories. The first stage, which is a transitional form from simple to automatic machines, are semi-automatic machines. The fundamental feature of the machines of this group is that a number of functions previously performed by a person are transferred to the machine, but certain operations are still retained by the worker, which are usually difficult to automate. The highest step is the creation of factories - and factories - automatic machines, i.e. fully automated enterprises.

The main indicators characterizing level of mechanization and automation, are:

The coefficient of mechanization of production

where K mp - coefficient of mechanization of production;

V M - the volume of products produced with the help of machines and mechanisms;

V total - the total volume of manufactured products at the enterprise;

The coefficient of mechanization (automation) of labor (K ^.t)

where N M is the number of workers employed in mechanized (automated) work, people;

Np is the number of workers performing manual operations;

Coefficient of mechanization (automation) of works (Cr)

where V M is the amount of work performed in a mechanized (automated) way;

V total - the total amount of work;

The level of automation Y and in practice is often determined from the expression

where K a - the number of automatic equipment in pieces or its cost in rubles;

K is the quantity or cost of non-automatic equipment.

It should be noted that this indicator of the level of automation, determined on the basis of a comparison of the used automatic and non-automatic equipment, does not quite accurately characterize the level of automation in the enterprise.

To a certain extent, the level of mechanization of production characterizes such an indicator as the technical equipment of labor (Kt.v.) which is determined from the expression

where Fa - the average annual cost of the active part of fixed production assets;

N - the average number of employees of the enterprise or workers.

The economic and social significance of mechanization and automation of production lies in the fact that they make it possible to replace manual labor, especially heavy labor, with machines and automatic machines, increase labor productivity and, on this basis, ensure real or conditional release of workers, improve the quality of products, reduce labor intensity and production costs. , increase the volume of production and thereby provide the enterprise with higher financial results which makes it possible to improve the well-being of workers and their families.

The answers to tasks 1–20 are a number, or a sequence of numbers, or a word (phrase). Write your answers in the fields to the right of the task number without spaces, commas or other additional characters.

1

Write down the word (phrase) missing in the diagram.

2

In the given series, find the concept that is generalizing for all the other concepts presented. Write down this word (phrase).

Preventive measure; personal guarantee; pledge; House arrest; undertaking not to leave and proper behavior.

3

Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, relate to the achieved social status.

1) husband; 2) sister; 3) doctor; 4) student; 5) seller; 6) Yakut.

4

Choose the correct judgments about human cognitive activity and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. Perception is a form of rational knowledge.

2. Only that knowledge is considered true that cannot be clarified or refuted in the future.

3. One of the criteria of truth is practice.

4. Ordinary knowledge, unlike scientific knowledge, does not lead to true knowledge.

5. One of the forms of sensory knowledge is representation.

5

Establish a correspondence between the distinguishing features and the types of societies they illustrate: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

6

In country Z, the urban population is growing faster than the rural population. What other signs indicate that country Z is developing as an industrial society? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. The state has guaranteed the personal freedom of citizens and creates conditions for the self-realization of the individual.

2. There is a formation of a class social structure.

3. Religious organizations play a key role in public life.

4. Natural exchange (barter) prevails.

5. There was a mechanization of production.

6. Production concentrates on large enterprises, in industrial areas.

7

Select the correct judgments about consumer savings and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. The growth of consumer savings is facilitated by an increase in its income.

2. The absence of a shortage of goods helps to increase savings.

4. Increasing income tax contributes to the growth of savings.

5. An increase in consumer spending leads to an increase in savings.

8

Boris Mikhailovich owns a car and a land plot and periodically pays the appropriate taxes. Establish a correspondence between examples and elements of the tax structure: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

9

Company Y provides cleaning services. Find examples in the list below fixed costs firm Y in short term and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. the cost of purchasing detergents

2. rent for the firm's office

3. the cost of paying salaries to employees of the administrative apparatus

4. the cost of repaying interest on a previously taken loan

5. cost of paying piecework wages workers

6. payment for electricity

10

The graph shows the change in demand for mobile phones of new models: the demand line D has moved to a new position D 1 (P is the price of goods, Q is the quantity of goods). Which of the following factors can cause such a change? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. Consolidation of companies providing mobile communication services

2. price cuts for popular phone models

3. approval of a flat taxation scale

4. growth in the purchasing power of the population

5. Rise in the cost of landline telephone services

11

There are different social norms in the society. Which of the following examples illustrate the manifestation of corporate social norms?

1. When meeting with familiar people, it is customary to greet and extend an open right hand for greeting.

2. The enterprise observes certain rules of conduct, it is obligatory to wear a uniform or a strict suit (for management representatives).

3. Explosives, flammable liquids, gas cartridges and weapons cannot be transported on the subway.

4. Members of a political party at meetings use the symbols of this association.

5. Every year, men, representatives of the Khakass people gather on a certain day near their ancestral mountains and treat themselves to national dishes.

12

In country Z, sociologists studied the extent to which television news programs were popular in society. Below are the results of the answer to the question: "Why do you watch news programs broadcast on television?"

What conclusions can be drawn from the given data? Choose the correct positions and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. The vast majority of respondents in country Z do not watch news programs.

2. About half of the respondents seek to know what is happening in the country and in the world.

3. A quarter of respondents watch news programs out of habit.

4. A quarter of respondents indicated that the news helps them distract from work problems.

5. The groups of TV viewers for whom the news is important for their work and who watch it out of habit are approximately the same in size.

13

Select the correct judgments about democracy, its main values ​​and features, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. In a democracy, there is no public control over the activities of the government.

2. In a democracy, the people have the unconditional right to decide their own destiny.

3. Personality is recognized as the highest value in a democratic state.

4. The signs of democracy include the subordination of the court to the legislature.

5. One of the principles of democracy is political pluralism.

14

Establish a correspondence between powers and subjects state power exercising these powers

15

In country Z, the government is formed by a bloc of political parties that win parliamentary elections. Select the features from the list below that indicate that in country Z parliamentary elections are held under a proportional system, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. nomination of independent non-partisan candidates is possible

2. the number of MPs depends on the percentage of votes received by the party

5. The winner is the candidate who receives the most votes in the election.

16

Which of the following applies to the constitutional duties of a citizen of the Russian Federation? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

2. take care of natural resources

3. pay legally established taxes

4. testify in court

5. determine your nationality

6. participate in social and political activities

17

In the Fadeev family, the husband works, and the wife runs the household. Which of the following items are personal property of each spouse? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. The car received by the wife as a gift from her parents.

2. Salary, monthly received by the husband.

3. A one-room apartment inherited by the wife from her first husband.

4. Summer cottage, bought by her husband six months before marriage.

5. Garage bought by the spouses during the marriage.

6. Profit of the hotel complex owned by the spouses.

18

Select the circumstances under which a citizen has the right to replace conscripted military service with alternative civilian service.

1. performing military service is contrary to his beliefs or religion

2. has a child and brings him up without a mother

3. has a provision state system scientific attestation academic degree

4. is the guardian or custodian of a minor sibling or minor sister in the absence of other persons obliged by law to support these citizens

5. is a representative of one of the small nations and leads a traditional way of life

19

Choose the correct statements about children's rights and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. According to the law, the fundamental rights of the child include, first of all, the right to live and be brought up in a family.

2. The law recognizes as a child a person who has not reached the age of majority.

3. From the age of fourteen, a child has the right to express his/her opinion in resolving issues in the family that affect his/her interests.

4. Minors between the ages of 14 and 18 are allowed to make transactions with the written consent of their parents, adoptive parents or guardians.

5. From the age of 16, a child, according to the law, can independently dispose of his property.

Read the text below with a number of words missing. Choose from the proposed list of words that you want to insert in place of the gaps.

20

Worldview - a system of generalized views on the world and the place _______ (A) in it, on the attitude of people to the reality around them and to themselves, as well as the basic _______ (B) of people due to these views, their beliefs, ideals, principles of knowledge and activity, value orientation. Worldview is far from all views and _______ (B) about the world around us, but only their ultimate generalization. The content of the worldview is grouped around one or another decision _______ (D) philosophy. As a _______ (D) worldview, the group and the individual really act. Worldview is the core of social and individual consciousness. The development of a worldview is an essential indicator of the maturity not only of the individual, but also of a certain _______ (E), social class. In its essence, a worldview is a socio-political phenomenon that arose with the advent of human society.

Words (phrases) in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word (phrase) can only be used once.

Choose sequentially one word (phrase) after another, mentally filling in each gap. Please note that there are more words (phrases) in the list than you need to fill in the gaps.

List of terms:

1. items

2. subject

3. social group

4. life positions

5 persons

6. sanity

7. ability

8. Submissions

9. main question

Part 2.

First write down the task number (28, 29, etc.), and then a detailed answer to it. Write your answers clearly and legibly.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

Criminal Code of the Russian Federation (extracts)

Article 19. General conditions of criminal liability individual who has reached the age established by this Code.

Article 21. Insanity

A person who, at the time of committing a socially dangerous act, was in a state of insanity, that is, could not realize the actual nature and social danger of his actions (inaction) or manage them due to a chronic mental disorder, temporary mental disorder, dementia, or other morbid condition, is not subject to criminal liability. psyche. 2. A person who has committed a socially dangerous act in a state of insanity, as provided for by criminal law, may be imposed by a court of compulsory medical measures provided for by this Code.

Article 23. Criminal liability of persons who committed a crime in a state of intoxication.

A person who has committed a crime in a state of intoxication caused by the use of alcohol, narcotic drugs or other intoxicating substances shall be subject to criminal liability.

Article 24. Forms of guilt

A person who committed an act intentionally or through negligence is recognized as guilty of a crime.

An act committed only by negligence shall be recognized as a crime only in the case when it is specifically provided for by the relevant article of the Special Part of this Code.

Article 25. Crime committed intentionally

A crime committed intentionally is an act committed with direct or indirect intent.

A crime is recognized as committed with direct intent if the person was aware of the social danger of his actions (inaction), foresaw the possibility or inevitability of socially dangerous consequences and desired their occurrence.

A crime is recognized as committed with indirect intent if the person was aware of the social danger of his actions (inaction), foresaw the possibility of socially dangerous consequences, did not want, but consciously allowed these consequences or treated them indifferently.

Article 26. Crime committed by negligence

A crime committed through negligence is an act committed through thoughtlessness or negligence.

A crime is recognized as committed due to frivolity if a person foresaw the possibility of socially dangerous consequences of his actions (inaction), but without sufficient grounds, presumptuously counted on preventing these consequences.

A crime is recognized as committed through negligence if the person did not foresee the possibility of socially dangerous consequences of his actions (inaction), although with the necessary care and foresight he should have and could have foreseen these consequences.

Article 28. Innocent infliction of harm

An act is recognized as committed innocently if the person who committed it did not realize and, due to the circumstances of the case, could not realize the social danger of his actions (inaction) or did not foresee the possibility of socially dangerous consequences and, due to the circumstances of the case, should not or could not have foreseen them. also committed innocently if the person who committed it, although he foresaw the possibility of the onset of socially dangerous consequences of his actions (inaction), could not prevent these consequences due to the inconsistency of his psychophysiological qualities with the requirements of extreme conditions or neuropsychic overload.

State two circumstances in which causing harm is considered an innocent act.

Show answer

The response must include the following:

The person did not foresee the possibility of socially dangerous consequences of his actions;

The person could not prevent these consequences due to their psycho-physiological qualities.

How is the law defined general terms and Conditions criminal liability? Based on social science knowledge, indicate the age at which the person who committed the crime is subject to criminal liability.

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The correct answer should be:

1) the general conditions of criminal liability are defined: only a sane natural person who has reached the age established by this Code is subject to criminal liability;

2) the age of criminal responsibility is indicated: 16 years according to general rule, 14 years for those who have committed especially dangerous crimes.

What are the two forms of guilt called in the law? Using social science knowledge, media materials, give one example that specifies each of these forms.

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The response must contain the following elements:

1) two forms of guilt are named:

negligence;

2) examples are given that specify each of these forms, for example:

Production and sale of forged documents;

Violation of the conditions for storing paintings in the museum, which led to damage to valuable paintings.

Other examples may be given.

Some believe that the punishment for a number of crimes should be tougher, since only severe punishment will force potential offenders to abandon their intentions. Based on social science and historical knowledge, give three arguments against the position stated above.

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The answer may include the following reasons:

1) intimidation of the population is not main goal punishment;

2) experience shows that the inevitability of punishment, rather than its cruelty, is more effective in preventing crime;

3) harsh punishment, including the death penalty, is too high a "payment" for possible judicial errors;

4) as historical experience has shown, the population gradually got used to the severity of punishment in the form of torture and executions and began to treat them as spectacles.

Other arguments may be made.

What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "sensory knowledge"? Drawing on the knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences: one sentence containing information about the forms of sensory cognition, and another sentence containing information about one of these forms.

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The correct answer must contain the following elements:

1) the meaning of the concept, for example: sensory knowledge is the initial stage of knowledge, giving direct knowledge about objects and their forms. (Another definition that is close in meaning may be given)

2) one sentence with information about the forms of sensory cognition, based on the knowledge of the course, for example: "The forms of sensory cognition include sensation, perception, representation." (Other sentences can be made containing information about the forms of sensory cognition)

3) one sentence containing information about one of the forms of sensory cognition, for example: "Among sensations, sound, auditory, taste and other sensations are distinguished."

(Any other sentences can be made containing correct information about one of the forms of sensory cognition)

Proposals must be formulated correctly, not contain elements that distort the meaning of the concept and / or its aspects.

Proposals containing essential errors are not counted in the assessment.

Name and illustrate with examples any three signs of a partner (democratic) type of family.

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The correct answer may be named And illustrated the following signs, let's say:

1) the lack of a clear division and consolidation of male and female duties (for example, in the K. family, the husband and wife work and jointly perform household duties);

2) joint discussion of the family budget (for example, members of the L. family once a month jointly discuss upcoming purchases and distribute the family budget);

3) taking into account the opinions of children when solving family issues (for example, in N.'s family, the decision on how to spend the winter holidays is made taking into account the opinions of children).

Other relevant examples may be given, other features illustrated.

A complex scientific experiment is being carried out in the laboratory of the chemical institute. Changes are constantly monitored. The received data is processed and analyzed according to the established criteria. Name three methods of scientific research mentioned in the assignment. Based on social science knowledge, indicate and briefly describe another method used in science.

1. Science and education as areas of spiritual culture

2. Science and education as social institutions societies

1) the functions of education in modern society

2) the development of science as a factor in social progress

3) state regulation science and education

3. The impact of education on science

1) preparation scientific personnel in high school

2) the formation of young people's ideas about scientific activity and the status of a scientist

4. The impact of science on education

1) studying the basics of science within the framework of school subjects

2) the transformation of universities into scientific centers

5. Prospects for further convergence of science and education

Possible other number and (or) other correct wording of paragraphs and subparagraphs of the plan. They can be presented in nominal, interrogative or mixed forms.

By completing task 29, you can show your knowledge and skills on the content that is more attractive to you. For this purpose, choose only ONE of the statements below (29.1-29.5).

Choose one of the statements below, reveal its meaning in the form of a mini-essay, indicating, if necessary, different aspects of the problem posed by the author (the topic touched upon).

When presenting your thoughts on the problem raised (designated topic), when arguing your point of view, use the knowledge gained in the study of the social science course, the relevant concepts, as well as the facts of social life and your own life experience. (Give at least two examples from various sources as evidence.)

29.1 Philosophy "The only global culture is the culture of how to share your cultural values" (M. Castells)

29.2 Economics "If you see the price, then it automatically affects you" (W. Buffett).

29.3 Sociology, social psychology "The highest and most characteristic of our people is a sense of justice and a thirst for it ”(F. Dostoevsky).

29.4 Political science "Bad government is chosen by good people who do not go to the polls" (W. Churchill)

29.5 Jurisprudence "Rights bring duties" (Legal saying)