Under the polls refers to the method of collecting primary information, which is asking questions to a specific group of people. With the help of surveys, both event (or factual) information is obtained, as well as information about the opinions, assessments and preferences of the respondents. Unlike letters received by government bodies, newspaper editors and public organizations surveys provide more systematic and accurate information. In addition, * they expand many sources of information, involving in the research process even those people who, on their own initiative, will not speak out.

At present, the survey method is the most common way of obtaining primary information, which is why it is sometimes identified with all sociological research in general, and sometimes with sociology itself as a science (i.e., science is identified with one of its methods). It is a very effective way of obtaining universal information, both objective (about the facts and products of people's life) and subjective (about the motives of activity, opinions, assessments or value orientations). The main advantages of the survey method are its mass character and representativeness, as well as the possibility of using it in conducting operational sociological research. Although this method is not universal, its role and significance is the greater, the weaker the provision of the studied phenomenon with statistical and documentary information and the less it is accessible to direct observation. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the researcher receives information about social phenomena only in the form in which it is reflected in the minds of people and expressed by the respondent in a survey situation.

The quality of information obtained by the method of surveys is influenced by factors related, on the one hand, to the personality of the respondent (level of education, culture, memory properties, protective mechanisms of the psyche, attitude to the problem under study and to the person or organization conducting the study), and on the other hand, with the activities of the researcher himself, starting with the professionalism in compiling the questionnaire and ending with the skill of the questionnaire or interviewer with the respondent in obtaining the required information. The results of surveys are negatively affected by the presence of unauthorized persons, an unsuccessfully chosen time and place for conducting them, non-observance of the principle of anonymity, as well as poor organization of the survey procedure itself. To neutralize the factors that negatively affect the results of surveys, one should strictly comply with the regulatory requirements for their conduct.

These requirements include:

Clear fixation of research tasks with the provision of an adequate questionnaire;

Availability to respondents of the proposed wording of questions;

Ensuring the principles of socio-psychological communication between interviewers and respondents, which involves the use of technical and organizational techniques aimed at creating optimal conditions for conducting surveys;

Accuracy of recording respondents' answers;

Standardization of the conditions for conducting surveys;

Encouraging the interests of respondents and interviewers to the results of surveys.

According to the degree of coverage of the general population, surveys are divided into solid and selective. In the first case, the surveys cover the entire population, and in the second, only a part of it.

According to the procedure for conducting surveys, they are divided into individual that take place in a confidential way of communication between the sociologist and the respondent, and group, in which the sociologist works not with one, but with several respondents at once.

However, first of all, the basis for their classification is the form of conduct, according to which they are divided into written and oral. Written surveys are usually called questionnaires, and oral surveys are called interviews.

Questioning.

Questionnaire is a type of survey based on the use of questionnaires. As can be seen from its definition, the central position in it is occupied by a questionnaire. Under questionnaire This refers to a questionnaire that is independently filled in by the interviewee according to the rules specified in it.

Questionnaires are widely used to obtain information about the actual state of affairs in the field under study and their assessment, as well as about the opinions, interests and motives of the respondents. Depending on the content of the question, various techniques are used to increase the reliability of the information obtained from the answers.

The structure of the questionnaire includes three parts: introductory, main and passport (demographic block).

Introduction contains an appeal to the respondent, which indicates the purpose, customer and performer of the study, as well as instructions for filling out the questionnaire.

Concerning main part, then it includes meaningful questions that correspond to the goals and hypotheses of the study. At the same time, one of the rules for the composition of the main part of the questionnaire states that complex questions should not be asked at the beginning and end of the questionnaire.

Finally, passport contains the necessary objective data about the respondent, which include his gender, age, education, etc.

The questionnaire is a structurally organized set of questions, each of which is related to the program and procedural objectives of the study. According to the form, the questions included in it are divided into open ones, which require a free answer (for example, “What do you think to do after serving in the army?”), And closed ones, the answer to which consists in choosing from several statements proposed in the questionnaire. Open-ended questions provide deeper information, but with a large number of questionnaires they lead to significant difficulties in processing due to non-standard answers. According to the content, the questions of the questionnaire are divided into objective questions related to education, age or wages the respondent, and subjective, which reveal his psychological attitude, as well as his attitude to the conditions of his life and certain events. Questions are usually answered anonymously.

The survey can be conducted in the following ways:

The questionnaire is filled out individually in the presence of the collector;

Group filling in the presence of the picker;

Respondents independently fill out and, to maintain anonymity, submit questionnaires at the same time;

The questionnaire is distributed or sent to the house, and then returned to the respondents by mail ("mail" questionnaire).

In order to increase its effectiveness, before mass surveys, trials are usually carried out, the purpose of which is to reject unsuccessful (“non-working”) questions.

The basic rules for constructing a questionnaire can be formulated as follows:

the topics covered by the questions should be in a logical sequence;

the interest of the respondent should grow from question to question;

questionnaires should not contain too complex or intimate questions;

the wording of the questions should correspond to the educational level of the surveyed group;

in closed questions, all possible answers should be provided;

the total number of questions should not be too large - the survey should not tire or annoy the respondent.

Questioning is used to obtain information about such phenomena and processes that are inaccessible to direct observation and are not reflected in various documents. An example is information about the motives, interests and preferences of people, as well as their life plans.

The advantages of the survey are: 1) the breadth of research topics, which can relate to almost any sphere of people's life; 2) the possibility of obtaining information both about objective processes and about the attitude of people towards them; 3) relatively small time and cost-effectiveness; 4) obtaining the most formalized information suitable for machine processing; 5) the possibility of repeating surveys with a certain frequency.

At the same time, the survey method is not free from shortcomings, which include the following:

the wording of questions during its implementation always gives an incomplete, and sometimes even a simplified, reflection of reality. From them you can learn only what and how they ask;

in the course of its implementation, it is possible to receive false and low-quality information if the questionnaire is incompetent or due to the intervention of random circumstances (for example, incomplete filling out of the questionnaire);

it is not applicable for interviewing visually impaired and semi-literate people, as well as for obtaining information on very sensitive issues and in conditions of high social tension.

Interviewing.

Interviewing is a type of survey based on an interview.

Under interview this refers to a purposeful conversation, the purpose of which is to get answers to the questions provided for by the research program. Interviewing as a type of survey is preferable to questionnaires in the following respects:

there are practically no questions without answers;

vague or conflicting answers can be clarified;

it is possible to observe the respondent and fix not only his verbal answers, but also non-verbal reactions;

the information received is more complete, deeper and more reliable than the questionnaire;

with it, it is possible to take into account the level of culture of the respondent, his attitude to the topic of the conversation or individual problems, to flexibly change the wording of questions, taking into account the personality of the respondent and the content of previous answers, and also to raise additional questions.

Despite the flexibility of the interview, it is carried out according to the plan provided for by the research program, in which all the main questions and various options for additional and clarifying questions are recorded.

The main disadvantages of the interview method include its low efficiency, significant time costs, the need for a large number of interviewers, and the impossibility of using it in situations of short-term mass surveys. For novice researchers, it presents considerable difficulties, since it requires special training and solid training. Besides, different types interviews suggest that the researcher has ambiguous sets of knowledge and skills.

The most widespread in social cognition received standardized interview, the distinctive features of which are a rigid sequence, pre-prepared clear wording of questions and well-thought-out models of answers to them. It can be carried out according to the questionnaire questionnaire, which is often done to control and supplement the questionnaire data.

Somewhat less commonly used semi-standardized interview, which is carried out on the basis of not a formalized questionnaire, but a memo ("guide") with a list of mandatory questions that do not exclude discussion with the respondent of other problems related to the research topic.

Even less common focused interviews, in which only the initial question is standardized, and the main task is seen in focusing the attention of respondents on the discussion of the variant of the problem that seems to them the most important.

Only experienced researchers use free and exploratory interviewing, which are considered quite difficult.

Free call it interview, in which the interviewer faces the problem of collecting information relevant to research tasks without the availability of a pre-designed tool. In it, the researcher is free to choose questions, determine their order, number and ways of expression, as well as methods of fixing information. An open interview is a long, relaxed conversation in which the interviewer's questions are determined by the ultimate goal of the study.

Target intelligence(or deep) interview, used in determining or refining the formulation of working hypotheses at the stage of developing a research program, is not so much in obtaining information about the object, but in finding out what information is to be produced in the upcoming study. At the same time, both the interviewer and the respondent are free to choose how to conduct the conversation.

Observation is a method of scientific research, which consists in an active, systematic, purposeful, planned and deliberate perception of an object, during which knowledge is obtained about the external aspects, properties and relationships of the object under study. Its structure includes the following elements: the subject of observation (observer), the object of observation and the means of observation. As a means of observation, various devices can be used, acting as a continuation and strengthening of the human senses, as well as serving as tools for influencing an object. Observation has the following methodological requirements, which are consequences of its definition:

activity(not the contemplation of an object, but the search and fixation of such a vision of it, which interests the researcher);

systematic(bringing the acquired knowledge into a certain system);

purposefulness(fixing attention only on such phenomena that interest the researcher);

regularity and forethought(following a predetermined plan or scenario).

Most often, observation is used when the information needed by the researcher cannot be obtained by any other means, for example, when studying the behavior of people at rallies or during mass spectacles - a football match, a rock band performance, or an extreme situation (traffic accident, fire, etc.). d.). In addition, it is advisable to use it when studying people's behavior in habitual, often recurring situations (moving to and from work, shopping in grocery stores, etc.), when the actions of individuals and their groups become "automated" in nature, and the person it becomes difficult to explain why he carried out this particular action in the corresponding situation. On the other hand, getting into an extreme situation and experiencing excessive emotional stress in connection with this, a person most often acts on the first impulse, and therefore subsequently is unable to explain why he committed this or that act. In this case, observation allows you to identify typical reactions of people to emergencies, as well as in shock states. Observation should also be used in research of an intelligence nature, when a clear idea of ​​the problem and the object of research has not yet been developed, and preliminary hypotheses have not been formulated. Thus, observation can serve various purposes. First, it can be used as a source of information about the object under study. Secondly, it can be used to obtain additional information about the object under study. Thirdly, observation can serve as a means of verifying data obtained by other methods.

In order for monitoring to achieve its intended goals, it is necessary to develop a program and plan for its implementation. The observation plan defines its main stages, establishes the means of collecting information, the necessary documentation (cards, instructions, forms, protocols, technical equipment - voice recorders, video equipment, etc.), as well as the types of reporting and the timing of its submission to interested organizations. As for the program, it reveals the problematic situation to be observed, defines the goals and objectives, the object and subject of observation, as well as ways to implement and record the information received. It defines the following main stages of scientific observation:

Identification of the purpose and objectives of observation. Depending on the purpose, the tasks of observation may be preliminary orientation in its object, obtaining information of interest to the observer, clarifying and verifying the results obtained using other methods, as well as putting forward preliminary hypotheses and testing them;

Identification of the object and subject of observation. The object of observation can be individual individuals, their various communities and groups, as well as the ways of their activities. The objects of observation can be verbal and non-verbal acts of behavior of individuals or their groups (family, professional, etc.), as well as certain situations in which the studied individuals and social communities find themselves;

Choosing the method of observation that most effectively provides the collection of the necessary information;

Determination of ways to register the observed object, its actions and changes. Registration of the results of observation can be carried out in specially designed cards and protocols of observations, in notebooks, sound and video recordings, as well as in film and photographic documents;

Implementation of surveillance control. It can be implemented by referring to documents related to the events and situations under study, comparing the results of one's own observations with observations made by other qualified observers, etc.;

Processing and interpretation of the received information can be carried out as traditional methods- logical generalization of the obtained empirical data, drawing conclusions, etc., and methods of processing arrays of information received using computers;

Drawing up a report on the results of observation and the findings. Such a report should contain documentation about the object, subject, time, place and circumstances of the observation, information about its method and role of the observer, characteristics of the observed individuals, social groups, ways of their communication and activities in certain situations, as well as recommendations for the practical implementation of the information received. .

Depending on the goals and objectives of the ongoing observation, the position and role of the observer in the situation under study, the degree of formalization of the research procedure, as well as the conditions for its organization, several types of it are distinguished.

The main ones are the following:

- non-standardized(unstructured) observation - a method of studying social phenomena and processes in which only the object of observation is defined, but the researcher does not determine in advance which elements of the process under study, events, situations, etc., he will observe. This type of observation is most often used at the initial stage of the study in order to determine the problem situation;

- standardized(structured) observation - a method of collecting empirical information, in which not only the object and subject of research are predetermined, but also the composition of the elements of the process being studied, which are of the most significant importance for achieving the intended goals and solving the problems facing the researcher or research team. It can be used as the main method of collecting information to accurately describe the subject of research and as a way to check the results obtained by other methods, as well as to correct them. The use of standardized observation requires a good knowledge of the subject of the study and preliminary standardization of the categories used in the process of its implementation, as well as determining the factors to be observed and reflecting them in the form of tables, protocols, cards and other technical means;

unincluded(external) observation- a method of social cognition, in which the researcher is outside the object under study, studying it from the outside. In this case, the observer is not included in the course of events, does not participate in them and does not ask questions to the observed individuals, but simply registers what is happening from the point of view of the goals and objectives of the study. Non-participant observation is used to describe the social situation in which events of interest to the observer occur;

included observation- a method of social cognition, in which the observer, to one degree or another, is directly involved in the process being studied, is in direct contact with the individuals and groups being studied, participating with them in a certain field of activity;

field observation - a research method that is used in a real life situation involving direct contact of the researcher with the object under study. Most standardized, non-standardized and included observations are made in this form;

laboratory observation - method of collecting empirical information, which is carried out in conditions artificially created for the observed group and controlled by researchers. During its implementation, various technical means are used to fix the behavior of the group in changed conditions and situations in which the actions of participants specially selected for it are carried out;

systematic observation- a research method that is carried out according to a clearly defined schedule, with regular fixation of predetermined signs, situations, processes and actions. It allows you to identify the dynamics of the studied processes and events, for example, studying the behavior of people during a month or a year when they move to work in order to establish the desired rhythm of traffic;

episodic observation - fixation of the studied phenomena and events during lack of clear the regulations for their registration at certain time intervals or at various stages of their course;

accidental observation- a study in which the units and terms of observation are not provided in advance, and the researcher observes and records facts and events that deserve attention social life. It can also arise when a researcher, during systematic observation, encounters an interesting fact or event that is directly related to the object under study, but not foreseen in advance by the research project;

one-time observation- observation, in which one phenomenon or event is recorded, occurring in a certain place and at a certain time;

panel surveillance - the process of repeated, extended in time, carried out at certain intervals, systematic and organized observation of the same object, with the aim of identifying the changes taking place in it;

controlled surveillance- observation carried out purposefully according to a pre-prepared program, using standardized plans and documentation to obtain reliable information about the object under study and test hypotheses. At the same time, control is organized by increasing the number of observers and comparing the results of their observations, as well as through the intensification of its process;

uncontrolled surveillance- observation carried out by the observer in the study of real life situations without a strict plan and the use of pre-prepared documentation.

Being a prerequisite for cognitive activity, in general, observation provides primary information about an object in the form of a set of empirical statements. Neo-positivism qualified the fixation of the data of experience as a problem of protocol sentences from which a scientific theory is derived and to which, in principle, a scientific theory can be reduced for its verification.

Experiment.

Experiment is a method of cognition, with the help of which, under controlled and controlled conditions, the phenomena of reality are investigated. It is carried out on the basis of a theory that determines the formulation of problems and the interpretation of its results. Often main task The experiment serves to test the hypotheses and predictions of the theory, which are of fundamental importance. In this case, one speaks of decisive experiment, considering it as one of the forms of practice, performing the functions of a criterion of the truth of scientific knowledge in general. The experiment involves the creation of artificial systems that allow one to influence them by rearranging their elements, as well as eliminating them or replacing them with others.

The experiment is carried out to solve certain cognitive problems dictated by the state of the theory. On the other hand, it itself generates new problems that require their own solution, i.e., it is also a powerful generator of new knowledge.

The experiment allows you to achieve the following:

to study the phenomenon in its "pure" form, when side (background) factors are artificially eliminated;

to investigate the properties of an object in artificially created extreme conditions or to cause phenomena that are weakly or not manifested in natural conditions;

systematically change and vary various conditions to obtain the desired result;

repeatedly reproduce the course of the process under strictly fixed and repetitive conditions.

modern science uses various types of experiments: qualitative and measuring, full-scale and mental, model, computational, etc.

Qualitative experiment, which is considered one of the simplest in the field of fundamental research, aims to establish the presence or absence of the phenomenon assumed by the theory.

More complex measuring experiment, revealing the quantitative certainty of any property of the object.

Field experiment Conducted with objects and in situations of the reality under study itself, usually presupposes the intervention of the experimenter in the natural course of events.

thought experiment involves setting the conditions of a situation that exhibits the properties of interest to the researcher, as well as operating with idealized objects.

Intermediate status model experiments conducted with artificially created models. They suggest a real change in these models, which may or may not correspond to any real objects and situations.

In recent decades, it has become widespread computational experiment, based on the calculation by means of a computer of variants of mathematical models of the process and the choice of the most optimal of them.

Information collection methods

Despite the huge number of various research methods and techniques, the general scheme of activities implemented in the framework of market research is quite simple and understandable. The main sources of marketing information are:

l Interviews and surveys;

b Registration (observation);

b Experiment;

b Panel;

b Expert judgment.

Interview (survey) - finding out the position of people or getting information from them on any issue. A survey is the most common and essential form of data collection in marketing. Approximately 90% of studies use this method. The survey can be oral (personal) or written.

In a written survey, participants receive questionnaires(questionnaires), which they must fill out and give to the destination. Usually, in written surveys, closed questions are used, the answers to which are to choose one of the given ones. Usually, during written surveys, the questionnaire is sent to representatives target audience, affordable Email, postal mail or facsimile. The main disadvantage that limits the use of this method is the long period and low percentage (on average 3%) of the return of completed questionnaires.

Personal (Face-to-face) and telephone surveys are called interviews.

Telephone interviews are a relatively cheap method of conducting surveys of any level of accuracy in terms of sample design (the geographic location of the respondents is not critical in terms of the cost of conducting an interview). This method applicable only in quantitative research. However, there are objective disadvantages of using this method:

e not quite full control understanding and sincerity of the respondent;

l there is no possibility to present visual materials (samples, cards with answer options);

unfeasibility of lengthy interviews (on the phone it is difficult to keep the attention of the interlocutor for more than 15 minutes);

l In cities with an insufficient level of telephony, it is impossible to obtain a representative sample.

Face-to-face interviews can be formalized and non-formalized.

With a formalized interview, there is a specific survey scheme (usually a questionnaire containing pre-prepared clear wording of questions and well-thought-out models of answers to them). A formalized interview loses much of its meaning if the respondents' answers are not analyzed in terms of their social and demographic (industry and geographical) characteristics. Therefore, it assumes that the "passport" must be filled in, where the data about each respondent is entered, the need for which is again dictated by the research program. Such interviews are conducted on the street, in shops, at public events, at the place of residence of the respondents (door-to-door surveys), etc. Formalized surveys have received the greatest use in the implementation of quantitative research. The main disadvantages of this method are: relatively high cost and insignificant geographical coverage.

Non-formalized interviews are a specific method of collecting information in which there is only a topic and purpose. There is no specific method for conducting the survey. This makes it possible to identify the deep motives of the consumer's actions, to study both rational and irrational reasons for his purchasing behavior. In practice, informal interviews are used in qualitative research. Non-formalized interviews are individual and group.

Individual non-formalized interviews are conducted with the respondent one on one in the form of a dialogue, while the respondent has the opportunity to express detailed judgments on the problem under study. It is possible to single out such forms of conducting individual non-formalized interviews as in-depth interviews and hall tests.

In-depth interviews are a series of individual interviews on a given topic, conducted according to a discussion guide. The interview is conducted by a specially trained highly qualified interviewer who is well versed in the topic, owns the technique and psychological tricks conducting a conversation. Each interview lasts 15-30 minutes and is accompanied by the active participation of the respondent - he lays out cards, draws, writes, etc. In-depth interviews, unlike structured ones used in quantitative surveys, allow you to penetrate deeper into the psychology of the respondent and better understand his point of view, behavior, attitudes, stereotypes, etc. In-depth interviews, although time consuming (compared to focus groups), are very useful in situations where the atmosphere of a group discussion is undesirable. This may be necessary when studying individual problems and situations that are not usually discussed in a wide circle, or when individual points of view may differ sharply from socially approved behavior - for example, when discussing issues of gender relations, sex, certain diseases, hidden political beliefs, etc. .P. In-depth interviews are used in testing and developing initial advertising developments(creative ideas) when you want to get direct, individual associations, reactions and perceptions - without regard to the group. At the same time, the combination of the method of in-depth interviews and focus groups with the same respondents is optimal. And, finally, in-depth interviews are indispensable when conducting qualitative research, when the characteristics of the target group make it impossible to collect respondents in a focus group - i.e. at one time in one place for 2-3 hours. For example, when it comes to busy businessmen, wealthy citizens, narrow professional groups, etc.

Hall tests are personal semi-formalized interviews in a special room. As a rule, premises are used in libraries, shops, halls of administrative buildings, etc. The respondent and the interviewer sit down at a table, and the interview takes place in a structured conversation mode. The need for a hall test is usually due to one of several reasons:

l testing bulky samples that are inconvenient to carry around apartments or there is no certainty that the apartment will be able to conduct an interview under normal conditions;

l testing is limited to the number of samples;

l use of special equipment (for example, TV-video) for demonstration of the tested material;

The interview is conducted in crowded places of potential respondents, but it is complex and not suitable for a conversation “on your feet”.

Hall tests formally refer to quantitative methods for obtaining information. With qualitative methods, the hall test is related by the fact that information is obtained on a relatively small directed sample (from 100 to 400 people), as well as the fact that the respondent is asked to comment (explain) his behavior. To conduct a hall test, representatives of the target group (potential consumers) are invited to a room (“hall”) equipped for tasting goods and / or viewing advertising, where they are given the opportunity to demonstrate their reaction to the tested material and explain the reason for their choice. In the course of answering the questions of the questionnaire, the selection criteria, frequency and volume of consumption of brands of the studied product group are determined. The method is used to evaluate the consumer properties of a new product: taste, smell, appearance etc. The method is also used when testing brand elements, packaging, audio and video clips, advertising messages (recognition advertising message, memorability, reliability, persuasiveness, understanding of the primary and secondary ideas of advertising, slogan, etc.), etc.

Group non-formalized interview (focused interview, focus - group) - is a group discussion of issues of interest to representatives of the target audience. The “focus” in such a group is on the subjective experience of people who give their understanding and explanation of a given topic, including all its nuances. The course of the conversation is controlled by the moderator according to a pre-developed plan and is recorded on videotape. As a rule, during the discussion, various projective techniques are used to find out the “real” attitude of consumers to the subject under study, obtaining a much deeper and detailed information than at the level of “normal” communication. Usually people do not think specifically about the issues that are discussed in the group, or do not have the opportunity to compare their opinions with the opinions of other people. During the focus group, respondents are asked not only to rate something according to the “like or dislike” principle, but also to explain their point of view. And the subsequent qualified analysis of the results obtained allows us to understand the psychological mechanisms of the formation of one or another opinion of the group members. The main disadvantage of this method is the biased nature of the results. In other words, the results of focused interviews cannot be expressed in numerical terms, for further extrapolation to the general population of research objects. Therefore, in practice, the focus group technique is used in combination with quantitative research methods.

Observation (registration) is a form marketing research, with the help of which a systematic, systematic study of the behavior of an object or subject is carried out. Observation, unlike polling, does not depend on the readiness of the observed object to report information. Observation is the process of collecting and recording events or special moments associated with the behavior of the object being studied, open or hidden from the observed. The subject of observations can be the properties and behavior of individuals; movement of things, goods, etc. The disadvantage of observations is the impossibility of revealing the opinions, ideas, knowledge of people. Therefore, in practice, observations are usually used in conjunction with other research methods.

An experiment is a study of the influence of one factor on another while controlling for extraneous factors. Experiments are divided into laboratory experiments taking place in an artificial environment (product test) and field experiments taking place in real conditions (market test). The main disadvantages of this method are the significant cost and duration, which significantly limits the use of this method in practical research.

A panel is a repeated collection of data from one group of respondents at regular intervals. Thus, the panel is a kind of continuous sampling. It allows you to fix changes in the observed values, characteristics. A panel survey is used to study the opinions of consumers of a certain group over a certain period of time, when their needs, habits, tastes, complaints are determined. The disadvantages of using panels are: the “mortality” of the panel, which is manifested in the gradual refusal of participants to cooperate or the transition to another consumer category, and the “panel effect”, which consists in the conscious or unconscious change in the behavior of participants who are under long-term control.

An expert assessment is an assessment of the processes under study by qualified specialists - experts. Such an assessment is especially necessary when it is impossible to obtain unmediated information about any process or phenomenon. In practice, to conduct expert assessments, the delphi method, the brainstorming method and the synectics method are most often used.

The Delphi method is a form of polling experts, in which their anonymous answers are collected over several rounds and, through familiarization with the intermediate results, they receive a group assessment of the process under study.

The brainstorming method consists in the uncontrolled generation and spontaneous interweaving of ideas by participants in a group discussion of a problem. On this basis, chains of associations arise that can lead to an unexpected solution to the problem.

Synectics is considered a highly creative method. The idea of ​​the method lies in the gradual alienation of the original problem by building analogies with other areas of knowledge. After multistage analogies, a quick return to the original problem is made.

information strategic decision demand

1. Collection of information

.1 Collection of information

For a long time, people have understood the need for constant collection of information. In order to somehow streamline and facilitate this collection, it was invented:

reference books;

directories;

· specialized publications;

abstract journals;

· reviews and thematic monographs;

transcripts and minutes of meetings;

summaries.

For people who lived until the second half of the 20th century, information from these sources was quite enough. The situation began to change since the 1960s. Thanks to the globalization of society and the emergence of new means of information delivery, it turned out that both traditional and new means of information delivery provide incomplete (in the worst case, biased) information or outdated information, any message will contain unnecessary (sometimes even contradictory) information, so the technique is being improved. selection, sorting, analysis and presentation of information.

1.2 Collection of information and data mining

The technology of collecting information by traditional methods developed by the beginning of the 19th century, and was closely related to education. It included a collective and an individual component.

The collective component of information collection is as follows:

· Attending lectures, master classes, symposiums and conferences;

· Work at seminars, trainings, business communication (both in the classroom and personal communication).

· Correspondence (postal and electronic, by E-mail), telephone conversations, communication in chat rooms, video conferences, etc.

· Visits (personal or via courier) to experts, specialized firms, agencies - carriers of important information.

The importance of the collective exchange of information cannot be overestimated. It is in this communication that the participants increase their professional level(even from scratch), acquire the necessary work skills, create a social circle, make friends and like-minded people. But this method of information exchange has disadvantages:

· Limited circle of contacts;

· Difficulties (financial, temporary, organizational) to gather people in one place;

· Psychological features of personalities.

· As a result, much attention has been and is being paid to individual, self-collection of information.

These methods of collecting information include:

· Reading specialized literature in the library (with notes).

· Viewing traditional media, TV and radio programs for the relevance of topics and issues raised.

· Reading articles, monographs, and other primary sources.

· Search articles on this topic in abstract journals, in the list of primary sources, etc.

· Search for literature in catalogs (library, online, etc.).

· Collection of information on the Internet.

It is an individual approach to collecting information, as well as personal visits and correspondence, that is what is currently called data mining (from the words Data - data and Mining - ore mining in a mine). The principle of Data Mining is to collect as much information as possible on a given topic in order to subsequently, as a result of the analysis, obtain useful information and prepare the necessary material.

1.3 Rules for collecting offline information

Before proceeding with the collection of information, it is necessary to determine the objectives of this collection. The rule: “go there, I don’t know where, bring it, I don’t know what” - does not work both in life and in data mining. Usually information is sought for some purpose related to either professional or personal interests of a person. Therefore, the first step for collection is to define goals.

The second, no less important stage for collecting information is compiling approximate plan work. The big mistakes of all those who approach planning in an amateurish way are:

deep detailing of the plan in the early stages;

Too busy plan

Exaggerated expectations from the plan.

As follows from the above, such a plan fails. And then a person is tempted: “Come on, these plans. I will do what I can,” and as a result comes to defeat. Therefore, in case of failure of one plan, it should be replaced by another, taking into account the mistakes already made.

To write a speech, speech, work, a plan is also needed. You must always imagine what you want to say, and it is for this “what” that you will collect material.

1.4. Information collection and storage technologies

The collection of information involves obtaining the most verified initial information and is one of the most important stages in working with information, since it completely depends on the purpose of the collection and methods of subsequent processing. final result operation of the entire information system.

Collection technology implies the use of certain methods of collecting information and technical means, selected depending on the type of information and the methods used to collect it. At the final stage of collection, when the information is converted into data, i.e. information presented in a formalized form suitable for computer processing is entered into the system.

When the collection of information is completed, the collected data is brought together in a system to create, store and keep up to date the information fund necessary to perform various tasks in the activities of the control object. It should be noted that the stored data must be sufficiently available for retrieval from the storage location, display, transmission or processing at the request of the user. And data collection should provide the necessary completeness and minimum redundancy of stored information, which can be achieved by selecting data, assessing their need, as well as analyzing existing data and separating them into input, intermediate and output.

Input data is data obtained from primary information that creates the initial description of the subject area and is subject to storage.

Intermediate data is formed from other data in the process of transformation and processing, and, as a rule, is not subject to long-term storage.

The output data is the result of processing the input data according to the corresponding algorithm; they serve as the basis for making management decisions and are subject to storage for a certain period.

In order to collect data, it is first necessary to identify the technical means that allow collection to be carried out quickly and with high quality, and that support data entry and data submission in electronic form. As a means of collection information systems usually there are aggregates, which are a set of devices and software for them, which serve to convert information presented in non-electronic form into electronic form for its subsequent use in the system.

With development computer technology various technical means began to appear that allow manual or automated collection of information directly from its source or through intermediate links. It should be noted that in each individual case, technical means are selected depending on the type of information collected and its purpose.

So, for various stages of collecting text and graphic information, as well as for choosing from the options offered by the system, such tools as a keyboard, various manipulators (“mouse”, ball joystick, light pen, etc.), a scanner, a tablet, touch screen monitor. To collect sound information, a voice recorder and a microphone are most often used; in some cases, sound sensors and speech recognition equipment are used, as well as means of recording the air of radio stations.

The collection of video information is carried out with the help of video cameras and cameras; in addition, there are facilities that allow you to record television broadcast video signals.

1.5 Technical means of collecting information

Figure 1. Technical means of collecting information

In industrial systems, depending on the application, hardware for barcode scanning, image capturing, automatic sensors for volume, pressure, temperature, humidity, signal and code recognition systems, etc. are often used.

In general, the use of such industrial means of collecting information is called automatic identification technology, i.e. identification and / or direct data collection into a microprocessor device (computer or programmable controller) without using a keyboard. This technology is used to eliminate errors associated with data collection and speed up the collection process; it allows not only to identify objects, but also to track them, encode a large number of information.

Automatic identification combines five groups of technologies that provide a solution to the problem of collecting a variety of data:

Bar coding technologies (Bar Code Technologies).

2. Radio Frequency Identification Technologies (RFID - Radio Frequency Identification Technologies).

3. Card technologies (Card Technologies).

Data collection technologies (Data Communications Technologies).

New technologies such as voice recognition, optical and magnetic text recognition, biometric technologies and some others.

During the initial development of data collection technology, after the choice of technical means, it is necessary to consider a data collection plan, which usually includes several stages, especially characteristic of research projects:

Definition of the problem situation and formulation of the purpose of data collection;

Detailed study of the subject area through a survey of experts, literature review and group discussions and clarification of data collection objectives;

Development of the concept of data collection based on the development of hypotheses, their practical verification, identification of cause-and-effect relationships;

Detailed data collection planning, identification of sources of information (secondary data already collected by someone before the project, or primary, new data);

Selection of information sources and collection of secondary data;

Evaluation of the obtained secondary data (relevance, accuracy, completeness, suitability for further processing);

Planning the collection of primary data, choosing the method of collection;

Carrying out the collection and input of primary information;

Analysis of the received data;

Presentation of the results of data collection, their transfer to storage and processing.

Depending on the goals, field of activity and available technical means, a whole range of data collection methods can be distinguished:

) in economic information systems (for example, marketing):

Survey and interview - group, individual or telephone survey, survey in the form of a questionnaire, formalized and non-formalized interviews;

Registration (observation) - a systematic, systematic study of the behavior of an object or subject;

Panel - repeated collection of data from one group of respondents at regular intervals;

Expert assessment - assessment of the processes under study by qualified experts;

) in geoinformation systems:

Collection of information from regulatory and methodological documentation;

Collection of spatial (coordinate and attribute) data;

Monitoring of data streams coming from research aircraft and sea vessels, coast stations and buoys in operational and delayed mode;

Collection of data coming through the channels remote access to the data;

) in statistical information systems:

Collection of data from primary documents;

Filling in your own forms and templates when collecting data;

Collection of data from reporting entities by completing prescribed reporting forms;

) in information systems for managing production processes, data collection methods based on automatic identification technology are widely used.

The collected information, converted into electronic form, is one of the main values ​​of any modern organization, therefore, ensuring reliable storage and prompt access to information for further processing is a priority. The information storage procedure consists in the formation and maintenance of the data storage structure in the computer memory.

Despite the high level of development of modern information technologies, at the moment there is no universal methodology for building a data storage system that would be acceptable for most organizations. In each individual case, such a problem is solved individually, but it seems possible to formulate the main requirements for modern storage structures:

Independence from programs that use stored data;

Ensuring the completeness and minimum redundancy of data;

Ability to update data (i.e. replenish or change data values ​​recorded in the database);

The ability to extract data, as well as sort and search by specified criteria. Most often, databases or data banks act as data storage structures.

A database (DB) is a specially organized set of interrelated data that reflects the state of a selected subject area in reality and is intended for joint use in solving problems by many users.

The database is a complex of information, technical, software, linguistic and organizational tools that provide the collection, storage, retrieval and processing of data.

The data bank is a universal database that serves any requests of application programs together with the corresponding software.

Database management systems (DBMS) are used to provide access to the database, compiling generalized and detailed reports, and performing data analysis using queries. Among the most striking are: Lotus Approach, Microsoft Access, Borland dBase, Borland Paradox, Microsoft Visual FoxPro, as well as Microsoft SQL Server and Oracle databases used in applications built using client-server technology.

In addition to databases and data banks, a modern information storage structure is provided by data warehouses, which include the following functional blocks:

Tools for setting up an information model that reflects all types of information necessary to solve enterprise problems;

Metadata repository, i.e. a description of the structure of the data warehouse, available both to the internal programs of the warehouse and to external systems, providing the flexibility of the warehouse;

Technology for collecting data from external sources, as well as from remote departments using two methods:

the use of ETL tools (Extract, Transformation, Loadin - extraction, transformation, loading), inherent in special systems, to extract data from other databases, transform in accordance with the rules described in the system, and load into the data warehouse;

the use of a standard data collection format and the development of procedures for their unloading at the source, which ensures the homogeneity of data extracted from different systems, and the decentralization of development by transferring it to specialists who know the source system;

Mechanisms for calculating aggregates and indicators based on detailed storage data, using technologies for hierarchical adjustment of the data structure or indicators, as well as a built-in programming language;

User interfaces that allow a team of employees to share functions and perform various tasks, including administration, application design, storage technology support, data analysis on demand, etc.;

Mechanisms for executing arbitrary queries, including tools for generating queries and necessary indexes;

It should be noted that an important requirement for any data storage system is to provide backup, archiving, structured storage and data recovery in the required time frame.

1.6 Operations for fast data recovery in storage systems

Figure 2. Operations for fast data recovery in storage systems.

Tools for setting up and issuing reports as end products of the data warehouse, including reports of a regulated form, analytical and user-customized.

These operations can be organized using a file-by-file analysis of the data to be stored, taking into account the dates of creation, modification and last access to files, their extension, location in file system directories, etc. Let's consider these operations in more detail.

Backup is the creation of copies of files to quickly restore system performance in the event of an emergency. Copies of files are kept on backup media for a certain amount of time and then overwritten. There are full, incremental and differential backups.

Full backup involves the creation of copies of all data to be backed up, which allows you to quickly restore information in case of an emergency; however, such copying takes quite a long time.

A differential backup only backs up files that have been created or modified since the previous full backup session. In the event of a disaster, data recovery will require the latest full and differential backups.

An incremental backup only backs up files that have been created or changed since the last full, differential, or incremental backup. Such a backup is fairly fast, but in the event of a disaster, data recovery will require the last full and all subsequent incremental backups, and the recovery procedure will be very long.

Taking into account the advantages and disadvantages of existing backup methods, in practice, full backup (for example, once a week) and incremental (for example, once a day) are used in parallel.

Archival copying is the process of copying files for indefinite or long-term storage on archival media. Backups can also be full, incremental, and differential, but they are less common than backups.

To reduce the cost of storing rarely used data, a structured storage system is used, i.e. organizing a hierarchical structure of information storage devices, when hard drives are at the top level, and removable drives are at the lower levels, which are combined into a single logical drive to store rarely used information. Moving files across levels is organized in such a way that the amount of free space on the server disks is kept within the specified limits.

1.7 Types and methods of collecting information for marketing research. Strategic marketing, marketing research

The required information is often missing from desired form. It should be found, processed and correctly interpreted. In marketing research, the result is a priority. The winner is not the one who got the most accurate result, but the one who was the first to find and implement the right solution, even if with a greater degree of acceptability. Finding information in marketing research comes down to answering five basic questions.

Marketing research and the development of marketing strategies on their basis are inextricably linked with the collection, processing and analysis of information. The necessary information is often missing in the right form. It should be found, processed and correctly interpreted. The problem is that, in relation to each specific case, a marketer must not only determine the sources of information, but also independently develop a methodology for its analysis.

Searching for information in marketing research comes down to answering five basic questions:

What information is needed to solve the tasks?

Where and when can you get the information you need?

In what form and volume can information be obtained?

How valuable is the information obtained for solving the tasks?

What are the financial and time costs of obtaining information?

According to the method of obtaining information marketing research is divided into two main types: secondary research (desk research) and primary research (field research).

I. Secondary (desk) research is based on already available information from two types (internal and external) sources.

Internal sources are sources of information located within the enterprise. They are the main source of information in marketing, are inexpensive, always at hand and include at least three types of marketing information:

Marketing statistics (commodity turnover characteristics, sales structure, complaints, etc.). This is information about the market, about who, what, when, where, with what regularity, under what conditions, in what quantity, etc. buys. There is no “clean data” either in accounting or in financial service or in other departments. The marketing division independently develops an internal system of indicators for its enterprise.

Marketing spend data (by product, sales and communications). Marketing activities are very costly. They should not only pay off, but also bring tangible profits. Therefore, it is better to stop in time if something “suddenly does not work” than to waste time, money and market opportunities;

Intra-company data (equipment performance, capacity utilization, storage system characteristics, etc.) This is auxiliary information already available in the enterprise. It reflects the internal potential of the enterprise, which must be taken into account when planning marketing activities. For example, it makes no sense to collect more orders than the company can fulfill.

External sources of information consist of publicly available materials from third parties that are valuable for planning marketing activities. This is not quite what is needed for work, but some useful information can be gleaned from them. For example:

Materials of state and municipal bodies of authority and management. From them, you can find out, for example, the conditions for providing support to small businesses, territorial development priorities, the provision on the formation of polling stations (to analyze the effectiveness of distribution of retail outlets), etc.

This information is available in legal information systems.

Materials of commercial and industrial chambers. Chambers of Commerce and Industry (CCI) are non-profit organizations that coordinate business activities and exist at the expense of contributions from their members and the provision of related services (expert, analytical, etc.). In addition, regional chambers of commerce have the opportunity to contact chambers of other regions and even countries to develop trade relations, organize business visits, support transactions, etc. Members of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry have the opportunity to receive relevant information upon request.

Collections of statistical information. Statistics are focused primarily on the needs of the state and do not always adequately reflect the real situation. However, in many cases, its data is indispensable for analyzing market trends. The main sources of information here are generalized tax reporting data, population census materials and surveys of economic entities, as well as data from other federal agencies (Customs Service, Rospotrebnadzor, etc.). In addition, all regional departments of the State Statistics Committee provide, at the request of enterprises, paid information within their competence.

Specialized literature, reports in magazines and newspapers. This is something that can be gleaned from the content analysis of printed publications. Even the world's professional intelligence agencies get most of their information from open sources. Here we can talk, for example, about finding promising areas for business development or new technologies. Most likely, you will not be able to find a solution to the problem in this way, but you can determine where to look for it.

Price lists, exhibition catalogues, brochures and other company publications. All these materials are usually available in sufficient quantities in any commercial organization. Usually, to obtain them, "spoilers" are used, appointed from among new employees, whose tasks include visiting competitors under the guise of buyers.

In addition, such sources are freely distributed at exhibitions and presentations.

materials consulting organizations. Typically, these materials include market and competition analysis, consulting firms conduct external audits and develop competitive strategies. It should be borne in mind that consulting firms often imitate analytical activities, presenting results for the effective use of which the client is responsible.

Studies based on secondary information are usually preliminary and descriptive or staging. With the help of such studies, for example, market trends, competitive strategies, local infrastructural features, etc. can be determined.

The advantages of secondary (desk) research are less time and money spent than for primary research, and the possibility of using the results to determine the objectives of the primary research if the goal is not achieved. The significance of internal or external information in each case is determined by the objectives of the study. The main problem in their use is related to the interpretation of available data (they are always not adapted) and the development of the analysis methodology (it is always new).

II. Primary (field) research is based on market information collected for the first time for a specific purpose. These studies almost always cost much more than desk studies. They are carried out in cases where high costs are offset by the importance of the tasks being solved. There are two types of primary research in marketing.

A full (continuous) study covers all respondents. It is usually used to study a small number of them, for example, large consumers or counterparties. Continuous studies are distinguished by accuracy, as well as low resource and time costs for conducting.

There are three types of sampling:

Random implies a random selection of respondents, regardless of their personal characteristics. For example, polling passers-by when choosing the location of a new outlet;

Normalized (quota) implies the selection of respondents in accordance with the structure of the population. For example, in Russia, on average, 51% of women live, 49% of men, and further - by age, income, national characteristics, education, consumer preferences, etc. depending on the objectives of the study;

Concentrated involves the selection of not all respondents, but only representatives of a certain segment of the consumer market or counterparties. For example, to study the sales of baby diapers, it is not at all necessary to interview men, schoolchildren, or retirees.

The main methods of field (primary) research in marketing can be conditionally divided into three groups.

Group I. Surveys of consumers and contractors. Conducting surveys implies two possible approaches to their organization: questionnaires and interviews. There is no big difference between them. The only difference is who completes the questionnaire. When conducting a survey, this is done by the respondent, and when conducting an interview, by the interviewer.

Questioning is a written form of a survey carried out without direct contact with the respondent. Surveys are cheaper, faster and easier. However, it gives a very high percentage of marriage due to the respondents' misunderstanding of the questions, inattention when filling out, frivolous attitude to questions, etc. The best accuracy result can be obtained when using the most simplified questionnaires with no large quantity short questions.

Interviewing is a written form of a survey carried out in the process of direct contact with the respondent. The interview is more accurate, labor-intensive, time-consuming and requires special training for interviewers. Sometimes it is necessary to draw up special memos for conducting interviews. At the same time, the interview allows the use of long, complex questionnaires with a large number of questions during the study.

The technology of conducting surveys provides for many options.

Personal conversation through direct contact with the respondent is divided into three types:

Standardized survey - based on the use of standard response options (for example: 1. You smoke. 2. You do not smoke). This method is often used in self-completion surveys;

non-standardized survey - based on the use in surveys, in addition to standard response options, of so-called open-ended answers to questions (for example: 1. Do you smoke. 2. Do you not smoke. 3. Quit smoking. 4. Other (please name)). This method is used both in questionnaires and in interviewing respondents. Its disadvantage is the high complexity of processing questionnaires with a large number of open answers;

expert survey - does not imply the use of questionnaires at all. Usually the conversation is being recorded on a dictaphone with subsequent transcription and analysis. For example, a representative of a supplier finds out from the sales representatives of the counterparty the regional characteristics of demand and competition in the market.

A telephone survey is cheaper, faster and less labor intensive. However, its use is limited by problems with compliance with the sample population (the one who is at home, and not the one who is needed, picks up the phone). Therefore, telephone surveys are used only in relation to the study of the market for goods and services of mass demand, where the sample is not fundamental.

A computer survey includes three options: direct mailing, interactive survey on websites and mailing questionnaires to contractors and potential partners by e-mail. In the first case, the number of responses is less than 1%. In the second case, it is not known who is responsible (a Russian or an immigrant from Canada, a competitor or just a computer hooligan). And only the third option gives a significant effect due to saving time and high information content.

Postal survey reduces the complexity of the study, especially when covering large areas. Its disadvantages are: increased time consumption, low efficiency of calls (usually 3-5%) and problems with sample control. Email surveys are most effective when combined with gifts, discount coupons, sweepstakes, promotions, and more.

Group interviews are a very effective form of market research, limited only by the potential of the interviewees. For example, representatives of the manufacturer interview employees of sales departments, wholesalers, who, by brainstorming, formulate answers to the questions asked. A variety of group interviews are consumer conferences, where new products are presented and features of consumer demand are revealed.

The focus group consists of 12-15 people, with whom the host (moderator) talks to a tape recorder for 1.5-2 hours in a relaxed atmosphere (over a cup of tea). Focus group is very effective in planning advertising campaigns and in resolving any issues that require a quick response with a high degree of acceptability. But there is always a possibility that the invited grandmother does not represent the interests of all such grandmothers. Therefore, to clarify the results of the study, several focus groups are usually conducted, the results of which are compared.

Panel. Panel research involves the formation of a group of respondents in accordance with the sample for a long period (a year or more), who permanent basis provide market data.

In general, two types of panel studies can be distinguished:

Trading panel - provides for the formation of a selection by the supplier of the most typical counterparties. For example, a manufacturer provides certain benefits to selected wholesalers in exchange for regular marketing information about the state of demand, competitor activity, etc.;

Panel of households - provides for the formation of a sample of the most typical consumers of goods (services). In Russia, this method is actively used by the Gallup Institute, which specializes in analyzing the effectiveness of television advertising. In large settlements a selective set of households with which agreements on participation in research are concluded is selected. Then equipment is installed in the apartments, which fixes which of the family members, when, how much and what is watching on TV. The information obtained is then analyzed and the results are sold to broadcasters and large advertisers to evaluate the viewership of television programs.

Group II. Observation of respondents. It is a study that does not imply personal contacts between the marketer and the respondents.

Supervision with the participation of a researcher - when a marketer is present at the point of sale and independently captures information about the behavior of buyers. This can be, for example, the study of the size of purchases, the effectiveness of the display of goods, the level of professional training of staff, etc.

Researcher's indifference - when a marketer entrusts the collection of information to employees of other departments of the company or uses technical means (video cameras, computer technology, etc.). Then the received materials are summarized and used for further analysis of the marketing situation.

One of the most effective methods here is the use of barcodes when making purchases. The information received is compared with the information from the questionnaires filled out when issuing discount cards, and based on the data obtained, a sample is formed for the study. This method allows you to quickly form a sample of buyers and analyze sales without asking the consent of the respondents.

This also includes the method of momentary observations, when the object is studied not in dynamics (over a period of time), but in statics (at a specific moment). For example, in the most typical of the firm's many outlets, the size of the purchase and the number of visitors during "rush hour" and "dead time", on a weekday and on weekends, are recorded.

Group III. Trial marketing. It involves studying how changing the parameters of a sales offer affects sales performance. There are two types of this kind of research in marketing.

An experiment is a local change in product parameters (price, quality, design, advertising, etc.) before a final decision is made on them. For example, at the most typical of many outlets, product parameters (price, appearance, assortment, etc.) are changed in order to identify consumer reaction to planned innovations.

If the experiment gives financial results(additional profit), the innovation applies to all outlets.

Market testing involves selling test runs of a new product on the market to study consumer reaction. This method is equally suitable for both manufacturers and trade organizations. It is not uncommon for manufacturers to provide trial lots to wholesalers free of charge to study consumer demand in the market. If the goods are not sold, they are returned to the supplier, and if they are sold, the seller makes full or partial payment and concludes a contract with the supplier for the sale of goods.

Specific decisions on the choice of types, methods and technologies for conducting marketing research are made based on the specifics of the problems facing the enterprise. It is almost impossible to conduct an effective study on a ready-made template to order. Each time it will be a completely new, individual approach, the personal responsibility for the effectiveness of which is borne by the marketing specialist working there before the management of the enterprise.

2. Information processing technology

2.1 Ways of processing information

Modern information technologies make it possible to process information in a centralized and decentralized (i.e. distributed) ways.

The centralized method involves the concentration of data in the information and computing center, which performs all the main actions of the technological process of information processing. The main advantage of the centralized method is the comparative cheapness of processing large amounts of information by increasing the load on computing facilities.

The decentralized method is characterized by the dispersal of information and computing resources and the distribution of the technological process of information processing according to the places of origin and consumption of information. The advantage of a decentralized method is to increase the efficiency of information processing and solving tasks by automating activities at specific workplaces, using reliable means of transmitting information, organizing the collection of primary documents and entering initial data at their places of origin.

The decentralized method of information processing can be implemented by an autonomous or network method. With offline information processing, the transfer of documents and data on electronic media is carried out by mail or by courier, and with network processing, through modern communication channels.

Often, in practice, a mixed method of information processing is used, which is characterized by signs of two methods at the same time (centralized with partial decentralization or decentralized with partial centralization).

In this case, one of the methods is taken as a basis, while using the advantages of the other, due to this, high efficiency of the information and computing facilities is achieved, saving material and labor resources.

2.2 Technological process of information processing

With the advent of computers, specialists employed in a wide variety of subject areas (banking, insurance, accounting, statistics, etc.) have the opportunity to use information technology. In this regard, it became necessary to define the concept of traditional technology that existed up to this point, designed to convert the initial information in a particular subject area into the required result information. Thus, the concept of subject technology appeared.

Subject technology is a sequence of technological stages of transformation of primary information of a certain subject area into the result, independent of the use of means computer science and information technology. The concept of information technology cannot be considered separately from the technical (computer) environment, i.e. from basic information technology.

Basic information technology is a set of hardware designed to organize the process of data transformation (information, knowledge), their communication and transmission. Due to the fact that information technologies can differ significantly in various subject areas and computer environments, such concepts as providing and functional information technologies are distinguished.

Providing information technologies - information processing technologies that can be used as tools in various subject areas for solving various problems.

Since a fairly large number of computing and technological environments have been developed and are currently in use, enabling technologies can be based on different platforms, often incompatible with each other. Therefore, when they are combined on the basis of subject technology, it becomes necessary to bring various IT to a standard single interface.

Functional information technologies - such a modification of the supporting information technologies, in which any of the subject technologies is implemented. Functional information technology forms a finished software product or part of it, designed to automate tasks in a specific subject area and a given technical environment.

The transformation of providing information technology into a functional one can be performed not only by a system developer, but also by the user himself. It depends on the skill of the user and on the complexity of the required modification. The correct implementation of subject technology depends on rational organization technological process of information processing.

The technological process of information processing is a strictly defined sequence of interrelated procedures performed to transform primary information from the moment it occurs to the desired result.

The technological process is designed to automate the processing of initial information by involving technical means of basic information technology, reduce financial and labor costs, and ensure a high degree of reliability of the resulting information.

For a specific task of a particular subject area, the technological process of information processing is developed individually. The set of procedures depends on the following factors:

The nature and complexity of the problem being solved;

Information conversion algorithm;

Used technical means;

Terms of data processing;

Control systems used;

Number of users, etc.

In general, the technological process of information processing includes the procedures shown in Figure 3.

2.3 Information processing procedures

Figure 3. Information processing procedures

In any subject area in the technological process of information processing, three main stages can be distinguished.

The first stage begins with the collection of primary documents from various sources and preparing them for automated processing. At this stage, the analysis of the documents submitted for processing, the systematization of the available information, the compilation and refinement of control information, which will later be used to verify the correctness of the entered data, are carried out.

The second stage is the main one and includes the input, processing of information according to a given algorithm, as well as the output of the resulting documents. At this stage, manual or automated input of information from primary documents, control of the correctness and completeness of the input results is carried out. Information from primary documents is transferred to information base or into an electronic form of a document and thus converted into data. This is followed by data processing based on the algorithm for solving the problem, their transformation into output data, the formation and printing of result documents.

At the final third stage of the technological process of information processing, the quality and completeness of the resulting documents are controlled, they are replicated and transferred to interested parties through various communication channels in in electronic format or on paper.

2.4 Information processing modes on a computer

Computing tools are involved in the process of information processing in two main modes: batch or dialog.

In the case when the information processing technology on a computer is a predetermined sequence of operations that does not require human intervention, and there is no dialogue with the user, the information is processed in the so-called batch mode. Its essence lies in the fact that data processing programs are sequentially executed under the control of the operating system as a set (package) of tasks. The operating system provides data entry, calling the required programs, turning on the necessary external devices, coordination and control technological process information processing.

Methods of collecting sociological data, with the help of which the process of obtaining scientific information is organized:

• document analysis;
• sociological observation;
• poll(questionnaire, interviewing, expert survey);
• social experiment;
• some socio-psychological techniques ( group tests).

Collection of sociological information

Document analysis method is a systematic study of documents aimed at obtaining information relevant for the purposes of the study. document in called specifically created by the author(communicator) material or virtual (computer files) object to hold, transmission and storage of information. Items that are not specifically designed to convey information are not documents. Documentary in sociology is called any information fixed in printed or handwritten text, on a computer or any other medium.

Documents contain at the same time two kinds of information:

• information about facts, events, results of activities;
• the author's position, assessment of these facts, which is presented in the content of the document, as well as in its structure, style, means of expression.

Main purpose method - extract contained in the document information about the object under study fix it in the form of signs (categories of analysis), to determine its reliability, reliability, significance for the purposes of the study, to develop with its help objective and subjective-evaluative characteristics and indicators of the process under study. These tasks, which are solved in the process of document analysis, simultaneously give an idea of ​​the stages of its application.

There are certain rules for working with documents that a sociologist should know:

• it is necessary to separate the facts from the assessments in the document;
• it is necessary to check the reliability of the source and information from it;
• the conclusions drawn from the information collected by the analysis of documents using several sources of documentary information, or using other methods of collecting sociological data, should be checked.

Method of sociological observation- method collection of primary sociological information, carried out by direct perception and direct registration of events that are significant from the point of view of the objectives of the study. Such events are called units of observation. Key Feature method is what happens direct recording of events by an eyewitness rather than interviewing witnesses to the event.

Depending on the position (position) of the observer distinguish the following varieties this method.

1. observations, during which the observer does not enter into communication with the members of the group, but registers events as if from the outside. This is simple observation;
2. the observer can partially enter into communication, the actions of the group, deliberately limiting contacts. This is intermediate type of observation
3. included observation takes place when the observer is included in the group's actions completely, i.e., imitates entry into the social environment, adapts to it and analyzes events from the inside. Member monitoring can be done open way or incognita. Another possibility is the so-called stimulating observation, during which the researcher creates some experimental environment in order to identify such states of the object that are not observed in a normal situation;
4. introspection- observer registers the facts of his actions, states. It is practiced, as a rule, to study the behavior of people in completely new, unusual conditions.

Methodsurvey represents method of collecting social information about the object under study in the course of direct (in the case of an interview) or indirect (in a survey) socio-psychological communication between a sociologist (or an interviewer) and an interviewee (called a respondent) by registering responsesrespondent to the questions asked by the sociologist arising from goals and objectives . Thus, the survey is a method based on the answer-question situation.

The main purpose of the method- obtaining information about state of public, group, individual opinion, as well as information about the facts and events reflected in the mind of the respondent.

The main scope of the survey is the study areas of human consciousness. The survey is also used in the study of such phenomena and processes that are hardly accessible to direct observation. As the object of research can be a social community, a group, a team or an individual. If a group, collective or individual act as a given that a sociologist can select for study, then the social community is formed by the sociologist himself.

It must be taken into account that survey data anyway express only the subjective opinion of the respondents. From this fact follow limitations in the application of this method. Conclusions from the information obtained during the survey need to be compared with data obtained by other methods that characterize the objective state of the phenomena being studied. It is necessary to take into account the shifts associated with the peculiarities of the reflection of social life in the minds of individuals, social groups acting as respondents.

Depending on the role positions of the one who interrogates (researcher) and the one who answers (respondent), two types of survey-questionnaire and interview. The method stands somewhat apart expert survey. The basis for the selection of this type is the quality of the respondents.

Questionnaire

When questionnaire the process of communication between the researcher and the respondent is mediated by a questionnaire. Conducts a survey questionnaire.Its function is that, having received an instruction from a sociologist-researcher, he behaves in accordance with it, creating a positive motivation of the respondent in relation to the survey. There are special methods of forming such motivation, for example, an appeal to civic duty, to personal motives, etc. The questionnaire also explains the rules for filling out the questionnaire and returning it.

There are various types questioning. By number of respondents allocate group and individual questioning. Depending on the situation andaudience Distinguish between questioning at the place of work, in the target audience (for example, in the library) or on the street. It is important delivery method questionnaires. Here are the following varieties:

• distributing (courier) questioning. Allows one questionnaire to interview many people at the same time by distributing questionnaires in the audience;
• mail survey, in which the questionnaire is delivered to the respondent by mail;
• press poll. In this case, the questionnaire is published in the media mass media. This method has limited possibilities, since the sociologist does not form a sample, is not able to predict who will answer the questionnaire. Used in journalism.

Each of these methods has both advantages and disadvantages. For example, in the case of mail surveys, the problem of returning questionnaires arises, and in the case of a press survey, it is impossible to extend the results of the study to the entire study population (newspaper subscribers), since here only the respondent decides whether to take part in the survey or not.

The main survey toolkit - questionnaire. The quality of the questionnaire largely determines the reliability and reliability of the results of the study. A sociological questionnaire is a system of questions united by a single research plan aimed at identifying the characteristics of the object and subject of analysis. There are certain rules and principles for constructing a questionnaire. Note that there are different types of questions that perform different functions. Questions in the questionnaire are formed into blocks, for example, a block of questions about the objective characteristics of the respondents.

Interview

Interview implies a different kind of contact between the sociologist and the respondent, mediated not by the questionnaire and the questionnaire, but by the interviewer. The role of the interviewer is not just distributing questionnaires and ensuring that respondents fill them out, but at least voicing the questions of the questionnaire. The functions of the interviewer depend on the type of interview. The higher role of the interviewer in the study places higher demands on him. Therefore, the interviewer must undergo more complex training than the questionnaire.

An interview can be classified on the same basis as a questionnaire. Besides importance has a distinction between types of interviews according to the degree of formalization of its procedures, which gives the most rigid differentiation of cognitive possibilities. The options are located here between non-formalized and formalized types of interviews.

In a formal interview the interviewer here, as it were, voices the questionnaire; the design of the questions is similar to those in the questionnaire and therefore lends itself to a quantification process based on the principles of measuring social characteristics. Therefore, it is possible to apply the quantitative processing of such information. The order of questions in this case is rigidly fixed, their sequence cannot be changed. A formalized interview assumes that the interviewer, when asking a question, follows the psychological context of the interview and can explain something, repeat the question, or speed up the pace. However, all this is done according to strict instructions. The higher the degree of formalization, the fewer errors associated with the personality of the interviewers.

informal interview represents the opposite kind of interview. The most free, non-standardized interview is called clinical, narrative (narrative). The interviewer and the respondent seem to change places here. The interviewer himself should be a researcher and not just a support staff at the CSI. Its function is to set the impetus for the conversation, and then it should only stimulate the flow of consciousness from the respondent. However, the role of the interviewer is very important. By setting the narrative impulse, the researcher sets the direction of the conversation. Sometimes the sociologist prepares questions in advance, but during the interview he does not read them out and does not interrupt the interlocutor during the story. After the respondent has told everything himself, the sociologist can ask additional questions.

Between these two types of interviews are intermediate options. This is a free interview, an interview with open questions(with guide), focused (directed) interview, interview with free answers. Each of the types has its own characteristics, scope and tools.

Another type of survey expert survey. His distinguishing feature is that the respondents are experts - specialists in a particular field of activity. The procedure for obtaining information from experts is called expertise. It may include the independent solution of the tasks assigned to them by the experts during the CSI. It all depends on the chosen type of expert survey.

The main purpose of the expert survey method should recognize the identification of the most significant, important aspects the problem under study, as well as increasing the reliability, reliability, validity of information through the use of knowledge and experience of experts.

Socio-psychological methods in sociology. Along with the social community, the social group is the most common object of study in sociology. Often it turns out that information about an object has to be obtained by analyzing data about the individuals that make it up. Summary information about individuals (their social orientations, opinions, stereotypes of thinking, etc.) are essential characteristics of the social whole. Therefore, sociologists actively use the methods developed in psychology. They can be divided into two groups: methods that measure personality traits, and methods for measuring group properties.Both are called tests.

Test- this is a short-term test that measures the level of development or the severity of a certain mental property (features, characteristics), as well as the totality of the mental properties of the individual or the mental states (relationships, mutual perceptions) of groups and collectives.

In sociology, they use sociometric tests, which are aimed at quantitative measurement and analysis of the structure of interpersonal relationships in small social groups by fixing among the members of the group of connections, preferences in situations of choice. The main purpose of the sociometric test is the diagnosis of emotional ties, that is, mutual likes and dislikes between group members. Sociometry performs the following functions:

• allows you to measure the degree of cohesion-disunity of the group;
• reveals the correlative authority of group members on the basis of sympathy-antipathy, where the informal leader of the group and the rejected one are at the extreme poles;
• shows intra-group subsystems (cohesive formations with their informal leaders).

In the sociometric test, the unit of analysis and measurement is choice- installation of the individual regarding interaction with members of his group in a certain situation.

The identification of the necessary data for solving problems begins, first of all, with the study of reports, formally existing sources of information. Research schemes, forms for data collection are drawn up, the time period for coverage, the level of detail, and the level of coverage are determined.

Document analysis. It is the initial stages in the study and the most formalized. The entire volume of documentation available in the organization is analyzed, these are regulatory materials ( job descriptions, qualification requirements and instructions, orders for workflow schemes, official powers, enshrined in orders and instructions, etc.), reporting materials, the structure of reporting indicators, a system of plans. Of interest may be special reports, certificates, selective statistical data that are prepared by employees of the administrative apparatus at individual requests from managers, clients, higher and inspecting bodies. When analyzing documents, for example, about downtime of equipment and workers, reasons for downtime and overtime, there may be distorted data that it is desirable to additionally check. Often organizational chart(structure) management does not reflect the real division of powers and responsibilities. In parallel with the analysis of documents, it is desirable to carry out other types of collection of information on the problem.

Considering that information about management problems is most often not formalized in a reporting form and statistical data, sociological methods are used to collect information.

Gathering information on management issues based on sociological methods allows you to form an information base about the needs and interests of the organization's personnel, the nature of the relationship between people and groups, the type of culture, management style and behavior, identify the role individual workers and groups in the occurrence of deviations from the planned goals, assess the interest in completing tasks.

For these purposes, widely used : interviews, questionnaires, observations and introspection. All this provides the necessary information, on the basis of which it is possible to predict the reaction of the organization's personnel to certain decisions, the ability to control the behavior of groups, individual employees.

observation. E it is a method used to obtain information that is difficult to formally record. Observational research requires the researcher's own presence at the site of the study, or participation in events. For example, attending a staff meeting reveals group processes and behaviors related to a problem. Groups are usually observed rather than individuals. As a result of observations, information is collected about how the communication process is carried out, i.e. exchange of information or “who” maintains close service relations with “whom”, what is the nature of these relations, formal and informal groups, leaders, their relationships are revealed.

Observation is a very delicate process. Most people, being under observation, do not feel free, and therefore, behavior changes, which changes the reliability of the information received. When starting to observe, it is necessary to explain to people the goals of the research being conducted, to clearly show that the goal is not criticism, but the collection of information to solve the problem. It is necessary to establish an exchange of views between the observer and the observed, then they will be able to indicate what affects their activities. Observation is carried out in the course of any work related to the study, for example, during interviews or questionnaires. The method of observation is not used separately, but in the process of collecting information.

The results of observation should be classified, for example, when studying the behavior of employees according to the following scheme: experience, level of job satisfaction, strengths and weak sides in the process of work, special interests, motives, sociability, relationships with other employees, willingness to cooperate, management style, degree of creative thinking, innovative capacity or receptivity to new ideas.

Interview. This method is the most versatile for searching and collecting information. There are two types of interviews: free and formalized.

For free interview the weak influence of the researcher on the direction of the conversation is characteristic, leading questions can only occasionally be asked. When conducting a formalized interview, the role of the researcher is active, as the respondents answer specially posed questions. The advantage of a free interview compared to a formalized one is more frank and reliable information about the interviewee himself. However, a free interview requires a lot of time and effort of the researcher,

concentration of attention, the ability to arrange the interlocutor.

Conducting a free interview requires some preparation. The conversation should be conducted in such a way that the results are facts, therefore, it is necessary to plan the conversation. It is necessary to select certain objects for the interview. The effectiveness of the conversation largely depends on how well the conversation scheme is drawn up. Experts identify the main provisions that it is advisable to adhere to when planning and conducting interviews. Among them :

1. When planning a conversation, you should determine what facts you need to get and from whom. The logic of the conversation must be thought out so that each subsequent information follows from the previous one.

2. General scheme the interview should be informed to the interviewee in advance (for example, 2-3 days in advance).

3. Place and time. The choice of interview location is important, as people usually feel freer in their own familiar environment. At the workplace, they have all the information they need. It is important to exclude noise, interference, visitors, calls. For a conversation, you need to take 2-3 hours of time, since a free interview involves some historical conversations in the past of the organization, revealing views on the future.

5. After the conversation, it is necessary to systematize the information received, highlight the most important information, prepare questions on unclear, contradictory facts, draw initial conclusions, put forward the first hypotheses for solving the problem.

formalized interview built on the basis of a clear conversation questions asked. A questionnaire, compared to a free interview, allows you to get a limited amount of facts from a large number of employees. Usually, questionnaires are only suitable for collecting simple facts. Questionnaires can be distributed to interviewees explanatory note in this case, the questionnaire is filled in by the respondents. The researcher can conduct the survey himself, if the situation allows, enter the answers into the questionnaire. It is important to follow the rule: people should know “why”, “why” these questions are being asked, “who” is asking them, “what” will be done with the answers, “who” else is being asked.

Questioning. The most common method of formal interview. Questioning allows you to interview a large number of people in cases where workers are at a considerable distance from each other. Questioning can be full-time and correspondence, group and individual. This survey method is mainly used in the following situations:

1. When the problem under study is not sufficiently provided with documentary sources of information or when the information is not subject to fixation.

2. When the subject of research or individual characteristics are not available for observation.

3. As a control additional method, to double-check data obtained in another way.

4. When the subject of research is an element of individual consciousness: motives, interests, culture, needs.

The survey method has positive and negative consequences. To positive results include the following: stimulates analytical activity and contributes to the inclusion of the respondent in the problem; encourages social activity.

Negative side questioning method is the danger that critical responses can be used against the source of information. This causes psychological stress, a desire for anonymity, and reduces the reliability of an open survey.

Basic requirements for questionnaires:

Questionnaires should be simple, with clear short questions, where possible use answers like "YES" and "NO";

questions should be presented in a logical order, and it is desirable to group them to facilitate further processing.

Testing. This is an in-depth collection of information using questionnaires. Testing is closely related to psychodiagnostics. The test as a method is based on standardized questions and tasks that have a certain scale of values. Tests are usually used in the study of: intellectual abilities, in the assessment of professional training, in the selection of candidates, in career guidance. The test allows, with a certain degree of probability, to determine the level of knowledge, personal characteristics, skills and abilities, while using both quantitative and qualitative assessments.

Benefits of Testing: the use of tests avoids the subjective approach of the researcher; the time of the tests is limited, contributes to the rapid collection of information; purposefulness.

Testing Disadvantages: test results are relevant in a certain period of time, and people's behavior changes dynamically depending on the situation; standardization of tests limits the scope of research to a general approach, individuality remains outside the scope of the study; significant preparation for testing is required, as well as ethical and moral aspects of the study, which requires high competence of researchers.

Analyzing the experience of using testing in the US, experts note that testing in the US is perceived ambiguously. Testing is used to a greater extent by personnel services. In accordance with the legislation, it is necessary to ensure the "purity" of the test, i.e. where workers (or job applicants) are screened for a specific stated purpose, the findings cannot be used in any other way against or against those workers. From the firm's point of view, the criterion is simple: each test or survey must produce a return. Attitude towards tests assessing the general educational level or vocational training, the staff of firms is quite complicated. However, employees are required to participate. When conducting research personnel services set the following tasks: to express the interest of management in getting acquainted with the opinions and assessments of employees; create an environment in which employees can speak their minds without fear; improve internal company communications; identify problem areas and direct efforts towards conflict resolution; promptly update information and analyze labor databases; evaluate the effectiveness of corporate policy; contribute to the improvement of the atmosphere of cooperation and cooperation; determine directions for improving the organization of labor and management; involve personnel in solving corporate problems and maintain a sense of responsibility for economic results; create an innovative climate in departments .

American companies conduct at least three surveys a year. Company-wide surveys of owners are carried out by mail. Responses come from 90% of participants. The results are drawn up using graphics, visibility is brought to the attention of employees and management. The attitude of employees to such studies is generally positive:

73% of managers support

70 % - personnel specialists,

58% - production workers.

Expert assessments. Sociological research methods also include expert assessments. Such assessments represent a group of methods by which information is obtained from specific people (experts) when a problem occurs. Experts are people who are directly related to the problem. Information is subjective, regardless of the expert's skill level. To reduce subjectivity, a group of experts is used. Usually, expert assessments are used when it is impossible to study the situation by other methods. To assess the level of expert competence, the following criteria are used:

connection between the profile of activity and the analyzed area;

the degree of agreement of opinion with the majority of experts;

the results of test control, evaluating the qualification level;

experience as an expert, degree of awareness.

Organization of expertise. Examination is carried out in several stages. At the preliminary stage, a working group is formed, research goals are set, the examination method is selected, and a group of experts is formed. Further research has the following sequence:

Stage 1: study of materials, individual and joint discussion.

Stage 2: formation of expert assessments;

Stage 3: studying the qualifications of experts, evaluating the reliability of experts.

Stage 4: generalization of expert opinions, analysis of the consistency of expert opinions, assessment of the reliability of the examination.

Economic cybernetics offers several methods for conducting expert surveys. One of the methods is the method of sequential comparisons. First, the expert assigns preliminary estimates according to the proposed scale, then certain questions are posed that relate to various combinations of results and provide information on the basis of which the initial estimates are adjusted.

The following methods are often used: preference, rank, partial and full pairwise matching. These methods are aimed at coordinating the positions of specialists in order to develop a collective expert assessment.