and market conditions do not matter;

b demand is higher than supply;

in demand is equal to the offer;

d demand is lower than supply.

Test task for the third topic of the report:

A) awareness of the need;

B) conclusion of a contract;

C) selection of suppliers;

D) search for suppliers;

D) performance evaluation of the supplier.

2. The characteristic of a good supplier is not ...

a) does everything except related maintenance

b) charges a fair price (not necessarily the lowest)

c) ensures consistent quality

d) delivers on time

3. Supplier personal computers sells computers for business use only. He decides to start selling these computers also to end users (individual consumers). What is the name of this strategy?

A. Market Penetration.

B. Market development.

B. Diversification.

D. Product development.

Test task for the fourth topic of the report:

1. In the process of making a purchasing decision, the next stage after the development of product specifications will be:

A) awareness of the need;

B) conclusion of a contract;

C) selection of suppliers;

D) search for suppliers;

D) performance evaluation of the supplier.

2. In the process of making a purchasing decision, the next step after choosing a supplier will be:

A) formation purchasing center;

B) performance evaluation of the supplier;

B) conclusion of a contract;

D) search for suppliers;

D) awareness of the need.

3. The contract with the delivery date "immediately" is executed:

1. the next day after the conclusion of the contract;

2. within a week;

3. after notifying the buyer of the readiness to accept the goods;

4. within 14 working days from the date of signing the contract.

4. The following can be used as currency when concluding relevant contracts for the supply of goods:

A) the currency of the country of the importer of the goods;

B) the currency of the country of origin of the goods;

B) the currency of a third country;

D) the common currency of several countries;

D) All answers are correct.

5. The plant has released a batch of washing machines of a new modification and for the first time enters the foreign market with this product. In the process of negotiating the conclusion of a contract, a foreign firm-buyer made demands on the verification of the quality management system of the manufacturer of the goods. Which document will be checked against?

1) International standard ISO 9004;

2) UNECE Regulations;

3) International Standard ISO 9001;

4) a contract of sale.

Task 5. All speakers of the abstract are additionally tested for knowledge of terms and definitions from the dictionary study guide"International Marketing" (20 definitions)

PRACTICAL LESSON No. 9. (2 hours) TOPIC: COMMODITY POLICY IN FOREIGN MARKETS

Topics of planned individual reports:

2. Competitiveness of the export product

3. Competitiveness of the firm

4. Competitiveness of the country of origin of goods

Questions for discussion on the conceptual apparatus of the topic and the topic of the essay:

1. Specificity commodity policy in foreign markets

2. Export item

3. The quality of the export product and competitiveness in foreign markets

4. The essence of product quality

5. Competitiveness of the export product

6. Competitiveness of the firm

7. Competitiveness of the country of origin of goods

Test for a quick survey

Test task for the first topic of the report:

1. A trademark is intended to…

a) differentiate a product on the market among its own kind

b) compensate for the missing quality of the product

c) justify to the consumer a higher price of the goods

d) implement the firm's "marketing ploy"

2. Such a product as a furniture set belongs to the group of products ...

a) preselection

b) special demand

c) emergency consumption

d) daily demand

3. The essence of the product from the position of marketing should be defined as ...

a) a product of activity offered on the market for sale at a certain price and at this price is in demand as satisfying needs

b) a product of labor intended for exchange in the market for the sale of the enterprise's products

c) the result of systematic research, scientific development and production of the enterprise personnel

d) a product of labor that satisfies the needs of real and potential buyers

4. Product market parameters include…

a) price, competitiveness, breadth of choice

b) quality, color, size

c) strength, reliability, ease of maintenance

d) smell, taste

5. In marketing practice, a product concept is used in cases where:

and the organization focuses on sales promotion

b the organization actively investigates the present and future needs of customers

the quality of the company's product is significantly higher than the quality of competitors' products

G the consumer is interested in the goods High Quality

In the life cycle of a product at the stage of maturity:

a) The rate of profit from the sale of a unit of goods falls, and the mass of profit is the largest and is spent on supporting goods that are in other phases of the life cycle.

b) The volume of supply is compared with the volume of demand, which indicates that the “marketing point” has been reached.

c) It makes sense to limit the assortment to two or three of the most popular product modifications.

d) Only discounts on the price of goods are applied, which are used to retain conservative buyers.

50. In the decline phase in the life cycle of a product, one should not: (specify the excess)

a) To think that working with this product needs investments.

b) Focus the attention of consumers on the fact that the product is well known to them.

d) Narrow the range of this product group.

51. The introduction of a new product on the market must be carried out:

a) As soon as there has been a decline in sales of the most popular product.

b) Depending on whether the need for it has formed in the market.

c) Based on the results of market research.

d) All three previous answers are correct.

52. The following does not contribute to the extension of the product life cycle:

(specify extra)

a) Development of new areas of application and product modifications.

b) Expansion of sales volume.

c) Identification of new consumer groups and increasing the targeting of products.

d) Development of marketing methods.

Test task for the second topic of the report:

1. The quality of a product in marketing is traditionally understood as ...

a) a set of necessary functional characteristics of the product, which are recognized as mandatory by consumers

Market

Initially, the term "market" characterized the place where local residents could make exchange transactions, for example central square cities.

The last elementary working concept of marketing, according to Kotler, ¾ market. There are probably as many definitions of the market as there are definitions of marketing. Founder neoclassical school of political economy. Marshall defined the market as "a district uniting sellers and buyers so well informed in each other's affairs and acting so carefully that a single price of goods is maintained for the whole area." This definition is useful to remember when studying the fourth section of the textbook, which deals with prices and pricing. Another economist, ¾ W. McKins, argues that the market is the sphere of relations between the producer and the consumer. But the exchange between them within this sphere is impossible until some force turns the existing connections into real contact. And this power, according to W. McKins, is nothing but marketing. Absolutely accurate, we emphasize especially, the interpretation of the relationship between the concepts of "market" and "marketing".

Economists understand a market as a set of buyers and sellers who trade in certain goods. Marketers consider sellers as representatives of production, and buyers ¾ as representatives of the market.

It makes sense to recall another definition of the market. It belongs to Kotler, who, we recall, proposes to understand the market as "the totality of existing and potential buyers" 7 . Such a definition, of course, should be recognized as extremely narrow and applicable in solving only marketing problems and no others, but it is very important for their solution, because this definition aims marketing specialists at consumers, at potential clients of the company, on the satisfaction of whose needs commercial success depends. firms. In addition, some specification of this definition will not be superfluous, although it was formulated by such a marketing guru as Kotler. Speaking about the market, it is necessary to talk about the buyers of a particular product. In other words, we need to talk about the car market, educational services etc., because there can be no buyers without goods, just as there can be no goods without buyers. Thus, the market from the standpoint of marketing is a set of buyers of a particular product.

The concept of "market" should not be confused with the concept of " economic system ". These are really different concepts. And in order to understand their content, it is necessary to highlight such a system of interrelated, albeit opposite, concepts as the market and the plan. Here it is proposed to understand the market as a mechanism of spontaneous ordering national economy. The alternative to the market is a plan (or government regulation). And it is proposed to understand the plan as a mechanism for centralized streamlining of the national economy. Here are two, certainly very general, definitions of possible economic mechanisms at the level of the national economy. Ordering here should be understood as the formation of national proportions.

Let us consider the mechanisms of formation of such proportions using the following hypothetical example. Let's say someone is constantly nailing boards to the walls, thus making very beautiful wooden panels. Let's also assume that he nails 20 boards and no more in some period of time. This means that during this period he needs 40 nails to nail these boards on both sides. This is ¾ 20 boards and 40 nails ¾ and there is a proportion. In a planned economy, it was set directively, centrally, in the form of a plan. It was organized as follows. A certain factory producing nails included in the plan those 40 nails that our carpenter needed for his hard work during each period. Under the conditions of the market, this proportion is born in a different way: not at all on the instructions of higher authorities, but spontaneously, through market mechanisms that no one controls. In market conditions, no one will supply nails to our carpenter on the instructions of higher authorities, since these authorities themselves no longer exist. How will he act then? First, he will study the situation on the nail market and, from several possible suppliers of this uncomplicated product, he will choose one that is most suitable for himself (make a comparison in terms of the quality of nails, prices, transport costs, etc., i.e., conduct marketing research). And he will conclude a contract with him for the supply of nails based on the needs that have developed over the years - ¾ 40 nails in a given period. So the proportion (20 boards and 40 nails) in the conditions of the market is formed really spontaneously.

In addition to the mechanisms of streamlining (management), there is another important factor in the national economy ¾ own . If we approach its consideration in an aggregated way, then we can name only two types (two forms) of property ¾ private and public . Combinations of management mechanisms ¾ market and plan ¾ and forms of ownership and lead to the concept of economic systems. To illustrate these possible combinations, the matrix classification method can be applied (Fig. 2.3).

Rice. 2.3. Classification of economic systems

As follows from Fig. 2.3, four models of national economic systems are possible ¾ capitalist market economy, capitalist planned economy, socialist market economy and socialist planned economy, and these models are absolutely theoretical, abstract. In reality, they are impossible in such a pure form, just as the presence of distilled water in nature is impossible. In any state, in any national economy, due to objectively established traditions (mores, customs) formed in historical retrospective, legal and state systems etc., there are both elements of spontaneous market ordering and elements of state planned regulation, both private ownership of limited resources and public property. It turns out that each country has its own business model and one can only talk about a greater or lesser share of both in the structure of the national economic system of a particular country. If methods prevail state regulation, then the economy is planned, or, as it was more accurately defined Ludwig Erhard ¾ the ideologist and organizer of market reforms in post-war West Germany, ¾ forced. Otherwise, that is, with the predominance of market methods of management, we are talking about a market economy. The predominance of private property indicates the presence of capitalist production relations in society, and public property¾ socialist relations.

The combination of market and planned methods of management and forms of ownership led to the concept of mixed economic systems. And the fact that many specific methods of state planned regulation are aimed at solving social problems, led to the emergence of the concept of "socially oriented market economy". Both concepts reflect the combination of elements, methods, methods, techniques of state planned regulation and spontaneous market ordering accepted by this society. The combination of both is an objective necessity of social development both in each country and in the world. In most countries of the world community, the balance is tilted in favor of such national economic systems in which market mechanisms of regulation would prevail over planned ones, private property ¾ over public. But, we emphasize once again, with a reasonable inclusion of elements of state regulation in this model. In each country, the share of elements of state regulation is different, for example, in Sweden, Germany, Japan, this share is much larger than in the United States.

The competence of the state in regulating the national economy, which has a market orientation, includes the following areas.

In terms of government leverage:

· social protection ;

security environment;

protection of human dignity;

the defense of democracy;

· global protection;

information protection;

consumer protection;

protection of the economic system.

From point of view financial leverage:

· tax system;

· system subsidies .

Undoubtedly, the system of directions of state regulation in a number of market countries is much wider than in this list. So, in many European countries self-quotation of shares, buying up by companies of their own shares is prohibited. In the United States, after the Great Depression of 1929-1933, 40 out of 50 states banned the activity of financial pyramids. You can bring a lot good examples balanced and useful for society state regulation of the capitalist market.

More information about economic models of management can be found in the books: McConnell K. R., Brew S. L. Economics. M.: Respublika, 1992; Samuelson P. Economics. M.: NPO "Algon", 1992.

And now, at least briefly, we characterize the theoretical models of management according to Fig. 2.3. A classic example of a capitalist market economy is economic system 19th century England In the first volume of Capital, K. Marx described in detail the terrible working conditions in the English factories of that time. Child labour 14 hours a day, at which a person is already in his 20s and ¾ old. If anyone does not believe K. Marx, let him read the books of Ch. Dickens. They, without saying a word, gave approximately the same characteristics of the first economic model, in which the wild market rules the ball, and the role of the state is practically reduced to nothing. Is this model good? Doesn't fit anywhere.

The second model of the national economic system was most developed in Nazi Germany before and during the Second World War. Despite private ownership of the means of production, the Nazi government planned everything from bolts and nuts, oil and cigarettes to guns and submarines. Prices were also set centrally, rather than driven by supply and demand. In 1948, under the leadership of L. Erhard, the FRG began the transition from the second model to the first, and now Germany has a capitalist market economy with a powerful block of socially oriented state regulation elements.

The third model ¾ socialist market economy ¾ began to take shape after the Second World War in the countries of Eastern Europe and was most developed in Yugoslavia and Hungary. In the early 1990s, all Eastern European countries began to implement reforms, the essence of which is the transition from the third economic model to the first. But the third model does not leave the stage forever. China links its future precisely with it, trying to make the transition from a socialist planned economy to a socialist market economy (they are not privatized). This is a problematic way. Janos Kornai proved that the real choice can only be between the first and fourth models. Neither the second nor the third model, he argues, has ever functioned effectively. China, on the other hand, is proving the opposite in practice. But the insignificant experience of this large country does not yet allow us to say with certainty that Kornai was mistaken. It can only be noted that China is undergoing a grand experience of reforming, and its results will be important both for the theory and for the practice of economic reforms in general.

More information about the socialist methods of management can be found in the book: Kornai J. Deficit. Moscow: Nauka, 1990.

Russia, like other CIS countries, "inherited" from the USSR got the fourth economic model - the socialist planned economy. Although it cannot be said that it was exclusively planned. With strict state regulation of production, distribution in the Soviet Union was still carried out through money, and money is already elements of market relations. This means that we had at least a little market in that administrative-command period. Thus, the essence of the economic reform in Russia, which is currently being carried out, is reduced to the transition from the fourth economic model to the first ¾ from a model based on planned methods of management and public ownership of the means of production, to a model based on market methods of distributing limited resources and private ownership of these resources. It is important and necessary to know this, because the comparison of what we have in our initial positions with what we are striving for determines the path of economic reform. On this path, it is necessary to outline specific goals, tasks (global and private), arising from the essence of economic reform and linked to each other both hierarchically and horizontally.

Among the top-priority tasks at the beginning of 1992 (and even earlier) one should name the task of an optimal combination of elements of spontaneous market ordering and elements of state planned regulation, shares private property and public property . But this was not done, which only exacerbated the crisis tendencies in the country, and did not weaken them, as the authors of the reforms had hoped.

Retreat 2.3. Tartanov Yu. State regulation: market euphoria and dizziness from power // Economics and Life. 1997. No. 29.

The most difficult science in the market, and especially in the transition period, is the ability of the state to measure the scope of its actions with the potential it has today ... A state that is weak in its capabilities is not able to clearly implement its own guidelines ... This is where the causes of lawlessness lie and violations of law and order ... Only by shifting the optimal part of the burden of power to public institutions, subjects of the Federation, local authorities, you can really build up the muscles of the state, increase its efficiency. Well, in order not to wander in vain along the boundless plateau among the possible “objects of regulation”, it would be good to choose the dominant ones from them.

Indeed, it is not so easy to single out the dominants of state regulation, to optimize the distribution of regulatory tasks between the state and the market. These are the most difficult tasks of economic reform in Russia, about which, unfortunately, much is said, but not so much is being done. A vivid proof of this is the speech of the writer AI Solzhenitsyn.

Retreat 2.4. Solzhenitsyn A.I. There is no higher task than saving the people // Russian newspaper. November 1, 1991.

We have been hearing only about economics, economics, economics for a long time, it seems about nothing else. But the state system is still first and more important, because it is a condition for living in general. Often sounded and sounds the phrase: “Yes, what are you worried about? The market will put everything in its place.” The market of the state system will not arrange... This is a dangerous passivity of state thought...

Normal stroke reforms , which should be understood as a gradual improvement in the economic situation in the country, is possible only if the system of reform measures is a strict, multi-level structure of interrelated tasks aimed at improving primarily the production links of the economy, enterprises ¾ large and small, industrial and agricultural . In other words, the economic reform currently being carried out in our country must find a corresponding continuation in all enterprises as the final links of the national economy. And there, too, it should be carried out according to a specific, preferably pre-developed, program. And the essence of the reform at enterprises should be associated with marketing and management, i.e. with conversion (as noted in paragraph 1.2) of these foreign systems in the management and organizational structures Russian enterprises. Here one can clearly see a wide field of activity for young and inquisitive minds. And as soon as this is really so, then you, dear reader, it is proposed to think a little about task 2.9.

Task 2.9. What exactly is in the structure market mechanism Does Russia generally need state regulation?

Considering the category market , it is impossible not to mention one more of its aspects - about the types and varieties of markets, their possible classifications. Generally recognized, reflected in almost all textbooks on economic theory classification of markets is a classification carried out on the basis of the relationship between demand and offer . Using this feature, two types of market can be distinguished.

The first type: if demand exceeds supply, then the market has ¾ deficit and the manufacturer rules the ball. He doesn't care about the quality of his products. Why bother? They'll still buy it. This market is called the producer's market. We still remember such a market, although no one called our previous business model a market then. But, as just proved above when considering business models, we still had a market, at least a little. However, this was a manufacturer's market, typical of which was the problem of "how to buy", or rather, "how to get it." And before the revolution, there was a market in Russia. But what was he like? A. S. Pushkin spoke well about this in the novel "Eugene Onegin".

Retreat 2.5.Pushkin A. S. Eugene Onegin. Op. in 3 volumes. T. 3. M .: Fiction, 1974.

A. S. Pushkin in his novel "Eugene Onegin" more than once very figuratively characterized the economic arrangement of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. The most famous is his phrase, which characterizes the formation of Onegin:

... But I read Adam Smith

And there was a deep economy,

That is, he was able to judge

How does the state grow rich?

And what lives, and why

He doesn't need gold

When simple product It has.

He wrote about the market in that chapter, which, unfortunately, he destroyed. According to the plan, Eugene Onegin sets off to travel around Russia and arrives in Nizhny Novgorod, where the Makarievskaya fair unfolded and rumbles to the full (Makarievskaya because until 1817 it was held in Makariev).

In front of him

Makariev is vainly busy,

Boils with its abundance.

An Indian brought pearls here,

Fake European guilt;

A herd of defective horses

The breeder drove from the steppes,

The player brought his decks

And a handful of helpful bones;

Landowner ¾ ripe daughters,

And daughters ¾ last year's fashion.

Everyone fusses, lies for two,

And everywhere the mercantile spirit.

Don't you think that the market of Pushkin's time and our current market (of the late 20th and early 21st centuries) have many similarities, even if they are “fake guilt”. As for the producer's market and the consumer's market, in the novel, when describing the situation that developed after Eugene Onegin's visit to the Larins, if not directly, but indirectly, it emphasizes what he was like in Russia at that time.

Meanwhile, Onegin's appearance

The Larins produced

Everyone is very impressed

And all the neighbors were entertained.

Guess after guess.

Everyone began to interpret furtively,

Joking, judging is not without sin,

Tatyana to read the groom;

Others even claimed

That the wedding is perfectly coordinated,

But then stopped

That they didn’t get fashionable rings.

About Lensky's wedding for a long time

They've already decided.

The second type: if supply exceeds demand, then there is no shortage in the market, the manufacturer worries about the quality of the products produced, and such a market is called the consumer market, since it is the consumer who rules the show. He chooses, acts up ¾ the increased supply allows him to do it, ¾ and the problem "how to sell" is typical in this market. The problem area has thus shifted from the pole of consumers to the pole of producers. They are already concerned about the sales of their products. They want to sell them all the time, the consumer is in no hurry to do it. It was in such conditions of the consumer market that modern marketing concepts were born.

Task 2.10. Tell me, what elements of state regulation would you propose to include in the country's economic system (management model) created in the course of economic reform?

Let's ask ourselves a "childish" question: what is marketing?

The obvious answer is the science of the market and market relations.

As you know, the basis of market relations is the exchange of values ​​between the seller and the buyer. Thus, at the heart of any market relations, first of all, are the figures of the seller and the buyer.

If we imagine these two figures as a kind of extreme positions, then we can distinguish two types of market relations:

• seller's market;
  buyer's market.

It is natural to assume that the approach to promotion and sales in these cases is completely different.

seller's market

In a situation that is commonly called a "seller's market", all power and advantages are concentrated in the hands of the seller, who has material values, in exchange for which the buyer is willing to pay money.

The seller's market can also be called the product market, since the focus here is on the product and its characteristics, and the main task is to sell as much of the product as possible at a favorable price for the seller.

The strategic goal of the seller in this case is to obtain a certain market share - the more, the better.

With the growth of sales volumes, there is a reduction in costs and a commensurate increase in profits.
To implement this strategic goal In the conditions of the "seller's market" there are several ways:

1. Investment in the development of new types of products, expansion product lines, usage innovative technologies to cut costs.
2. Expansion of sales markets (geographically, demographically, etc.)

Buyer's market

In the buyer's market, as the name suggests, all power is in the hands of the buyer.

And if in the seller's market the product was the main value, and buyers were only free to choose whether to purchase it or not, then in the buyer's market the buyer himself becomes the main value. It is for his attention and money that manufacturers of goods are fighting.

For effective work in the buyer's market, the seller must clearly define the audience for which his products are intended, and ... no matter how scary it is, say "no" to all other categories of buyers. It is important not to try to please everyone, because by following this path, the seller runs the risk of pleasing no one and being left behind.

In a buyer's market, you don't profit from increased sales and lower costs, but from the value you create and, as a result, selling at premium prices.

An important characteristic of the market is the relationship between supply and demand for a given product. Taking into account the latter factor, one speaks of a "seller's market" and a "buyer's market".

Seller's Market.

In the seller's market, the seller dictates his terms. It's possible then. When the existing demand exceeds the available supply. Under such conditions, it makes no sense for the seller to spend money on marketing. His products will still be bought, and conducting research, he will incur additional costs.

Buyer's market.

In the buyer's market, the buyer dictates his terms. This situation forces the seller to spend additional efforts to sell their product, which is one of the stimulating factors for using marketing. Moreover, only under such conditions does it make sense to talk about the implementation of such a concept.

Market segmentation

Any company is aware that its products cannot be liked by all buyers at once. There are too many of these buyers, they are widely scattered and differ from each other in their needs and habits. Some firms are best served by focusing on serving certain parts, or segments, of the market. Each company must identify the most attractive market segments that it can effectively serve.

Markets are made up of buyers, and buyers differ from one another in a variety of ways. Needs, resources, geographic location, purchasing attitudes and habits can be different. And any of these variables can be used as the basis for market segmentation.

There is no single method of market segmentation. The marketer needs to experiment with segmentation options based on different variables, one or more at a time, in an attempt to find the most useful approach to considering the structure of the market.

Market analysis

An analysis of the future sales market is one of the most important stages in the preparation of a business plan, which should contain answers to questions about the markets for the selected product, competitors, potential consumers, and sales volumes.

In this section, it is important to show that your enterprise knows not only how to produce this product, but also how to effectively, with greater profitability, sell it on the market.

The purpose of the section is to provide the investor with sufficient facts to convince him of the competitiveness of the project under consideration. This section is one of the most difficult and important, since almost all subsequent sections of the business plan are built on market valuations and, as it were, develop its provisions. Market Valuations this project, based on marketing research and analysis, have a direct impact on the volume of production, the marketing plan and allow you to determine the size of the required investment. However, most project developers experience considerable difficulty in preparing and validating market research and analysis, especially when trying to prove to potential investors the fairness and feasibility of their sales opportunity estimates. Due to the importance of market analysis and the dependence of the rest of the plan on the marketing project, it is recommended to prepare this section business plan earlier than the rest. In preparing this section, it is necessary to carefully check various sources of information, reducing them to a number of general indicators, such as "sales" and "market appreciation".

Marketing research should be carried out by every firm, regardless of its size. Small firms usually do not conduct such an analysis on their own, but involve professionals. Based on these results, such firms must always choose the necessary positions (strategy) of marketing. The strategy decisively determines the approach to developing a business plan. When choosing a marketing strategy, you need to establish:

the program and its support (including production growth);

the degree of saturation of the market with competing products (substitutability, comparability);

the total market capacity for the proposed product;

part of the market that the firm can rely on;

buyers, how and when to attract them;

the degree of diversification of product offerings;

related products;

estimated costs of implementation;

estimated income;

service maintenance and repair.

The creation of new projects for the development of an enterprise, the release of new products involves a preliminary economic justification their feasibility, investment needs. The profitability of the project is considered, the relationship between supply and demand is analyzed as manufacturing process and the state of the intended market. The development of a business plan allows the top management of the company to be convinced of the economic feasibility of the proposed transformations, as well as to convince potential investors of the profitability of joint activities.

First of all, market research is aimed at identifying today's consumers of products, services and identifying potential ones. It is desirable to determine the priorities that guide the consumer when buying: quality, price, time and accuracy of delivery, reliability of supplies, after-sales service, etc.

It is necessary to segment the market, determine the size and capacity of the markets for the company's products. Market segmentation refers to the allocation of separate parts (segments) of the market that differ from each other in the characteristics of demand for goods (services), i.e. breakdown of consumers by motivation and other characteristics. The size of the market is the territory in which the sale of goods (services) of the enterprise takes place. Market capacity - the volume of goods (services) sold on the market during a certain period of time. Market share is specific gravity products of the enterprise in the total volume of sales of goods (services) in this market.

We need to look for answers to the questions: who, why, how much and when will be ready to buy products tomorrow, the day after tomorrow and in general over the next two, three or more years. In this section, you must list all existing orders for products.

It is necessary to analyze how quickly products and services will establish themselves in the market, and justify the possibility of its further expansion. It is necessary to assess the main factors influencing the expansion of the market (for example, the development trends of the industry, the region, the socio-economic regional policy, the creation of competition, etc.).

Because of the particular importance of market information, its decisive influence on other sections of the business plan, it is advisable to start developing a plan from this section.

A typical market research process involves four steps:

determining the type of data that is needed;

search for this data;

data analysis;

implementation of measures that allow, on the basis of these data, to properly organize the sale of goods.

A market niche is a part of the market that is supposed to be entered, but more strictly defined in terms of the actions that must be taken in order to enter this market and gain a foothold in it. Definition

a market niche is a marketing method by which we find a market for our company and subsequently promote our product or services to it, taking into account the action of competition and other forces.

It is necessary to choose a market large enough to attract customers and have funds for development. But at the same time, it must be small and specialized enough to have good protection against competitors.

Having chosen a market niche and once again making sure that potential products and services have already stood out to customers, what is called promoting them to the market, filling the niche, begins.

Tracking and evaluating competitors is very important. It is necessary to identify and analyze the strengths and weak sides own and competitor and the competitiveness of manufactured goods and services. Based on the assessment of the advantages of the goods and services produced, the possible volume of sales in physical and monetary terms is determined.

The scheme of market research is shown in Figure 2.

Current and prospective

Initial

information

Offer

Method Level Volume Channels Organization

promotion of sales prices

service

REVENUE FROM SALES

Market types.

The market was formed during a long historical process, organically linked with the development and deepening of the social division of labor and the economic property of producers. There are many concepts and definitions of the market.

The market is the sphere of commodity exchange; the dominant and determining form of communication between commodity producers on the basis of the social division of labor; final recognition of the social nature of the labor costs of individual producers.

The market discovers and determines which conditions of production are socially necessary; determines the value of goods, the market value.

The market in a broad sense is such an organization of social production in which producers of goods, focusing on the demand of buyers, decide for themselves:

when, in what quantity and what goods to produce;

how to produce these goods; from what resources and with the help of what technology;

for which consumer the goods are produced.

For the normal functioning of the market, it is necessary to ensure the following conditions:

commodity-money relations can be realized only on the basis of personalized property, when the commodity producer is the owner of the means of production and freely disposes of the result of his labor;

necessary freedom of production and commercial activities all participants in social production;

a well-established system of credit and financial relations;

the ability of manufacturers and managers to integrate themselves into market relations in an organized and psychologically correct way.

The market as an economy - involves the solution of the following tasks:

denationalization of the economy;

complete deideologization of the economy.

The market of goods according to their functional purpose is divided primarily into the market of means of production and the market of consumer goods.

A powerful stimulus for the development of the market is the aggravating problem of the sale of manufactured products.

The world market is the movement of goods and services, carried out on the basis of world prices, which differ from the price level in individual countries.

Markets can be classified according to the following criteria:

by industry as objects of exchange. Such markets are called product markets and may cover the market of any specific product or group of goods related to each other.

certain signs of a production nature or employees satisfying the same need (markets for shoes, ferrous metals, commodities);

on the object of exchange and the boundaries of its coverage. It is based on the country or regional industry affiliation of the objects of exchange. Such markets are called regional product markets, which may cover the market for a specific product, group of products or products of a particular industry of one country or region;

in the field of international commodity exchange and sectoral affiliation of the object of exchange. Such markets are called world commodity markets, their objects can be specific goods or groups of goods;

in relation to the national boundaries of the sphere of exchange - the internal (local) and external (foreign) markets;

by the nature of commodity exchange - regardless of commodity exchange, there are markets for goods and services, capital markets, work force, valuable papers;

according to the nature and level of supply and demand in the market, a seller's market and a buyer's market are distinguished. A market characterized by an excess of demand over supply is called a seller's market and, conversely, a market when supply increases demand is called a buyer's market;

according to the nature of the relationship between the seller and the buyer, markets are free, closed, regulated. On free (open) markets, there are no restrictions on the conclusion of commercial transactions between counterparties. Closed (closed) markets usually mean intracorporate deliveries of TNCs, which in general make up about half of international trade. Regulated markets include markets that fall under international commodity agreements aimed at their stabilization - markets for sugar, coffee, tin, etc.;

according to the methods and objects of commodity exchange, intermediary markets are distinguished: commodity exchanges; auctions, auctions, where transactions for the sale of goods with certain qualities, characteristics and properties are made.

Market segmentation is the process of identifying the most favorable conditions in the market in order to select options for orienting the production and marketing policy. It is based on the assumption that there are differences in the needs and behavior of individual groups of buyers, which together determine the overall demand for this product. Each market segment should have its own marketing strategy.

Buyer's market - a situation in the market in which the supply of producers and sellers of goods exceeds the demand for it at existing prices, as a result of which the prices of goods are reduced.

A seller's market is a market situation in which demand for a product exceeds supply.

Reseller market - a set of individuals and organizations that purchase goods for resale or leasing to other consumers for their own benefit.

Free market - a free commodity producer delivers his goods in trade at a price that provides him with an average rate of profit. Commodity enterprises seek and find desired goods, and the sellers "beckon" the buyer to the counter and do everything so that he does not leave empty-handed.

Spot market - a market for short-term one-time transactions with immediate delivery of goods.

Industrial goods market - a set of persons and organizations that purchase goods and services used in the production of other goods and services, sold, leased or supplied to other consumers.

A market of pure competition is a set of sellers and buyers who make transactions with a similar product in a situation where no single buyer or seller has a significant impact on the level of current prices.

The "black" market is an illegal market that is formed under the conditions of rationing, government regulation of trade, commodity prices, exchange rates, as well as securities rates and the procedure for their purchase and sale.

Evaluation of the sales market - assessment-forecast of the situation in the market (markets). Provides data on forecast sales for the coming years.

Determination of the main characteristics of the market of the designed product:

remoteness of the market (the cost and unreliability of supplies increase with increasing geographical remoteness of the market from the manufacturer, and the manufacturer from suppliers);

market capacity (the total number of goods and services purchased by market buyers at certain prices in a certain time);

the size of the market (local, national, global) is determined by the territory in which the sale of goods and services takes place.

Volume market demand is determined by the formula:

C \u003d P + (I-E) + (3H-3K),

where C - demand; R - produced product; I - import of a similar product; E - product export; Зн - stocks of the product at the beginning of the estimated period of time; Zk - stocks of the product at the end of the billing period;

degree of saturated market;

competition (share of competing firms in total turnover);

the trend of capacity and saturation in the near future;

demand trend for the product.

Market segmentation:

the basic principles of segmenting the market for selected products (dividing the total market into smaller parts depending on consumers);

the most preferred market segments and reasons for preference (the question is decided: who will be the main buyer. When selling products to firms, their field of activity, structure, sales volume, number and qualifications of personnel, location, etc. are considered. When selling products to individuals, their level of income, hobbies, national and religious characteristics, etc.);

evaluating what attracts the buyer of this target market (price, quality, design, Additional services, prestige of the enterprise);

selection of the most promising markets (sales volume, price level).

Projected buyers of products:

determination of the circle of potential buyers (composition - gender and age, national; family; employment; migration; population growth;

the level of education);

description of the structure of consumers within the selected market segment;

solvency of buyers.

Organization of sales of products:

who and in what form will sell products (the enterprise itself, agents or distributors);

organization of after-sales service;

financial relationships with intermediaries.

Competitive Analysis:

who is the largest manufacturer of similar products (services);

what is their product (main characteristics, quality level, service, design);

sales volume, product prices, price policy main competitors;

competitiveness of products in relation to goods-competitors;

the competitiveness strategy that has been chosen.

There are four generalized types of market action in which

market relations are built:

sell old products to new customers;

sell old products to old customers (this strategy is the least risky);

sell new products to existing customers;

sell new products to new customers (this is the riskiest strategy).

The business plan briefly describes:

capacity of the sectoral sales market;

its growth trends;

level of monopoly;

the likelihood of new customers appearing;

the probability of appearance and disappearance of competitors;

any industry trends.

Market research. Market research includes the main areas that should be reflected in the business plan:

study and segmentation of consumers;

measurement of demand and selection of target markets;

determination of consumer motivation;

study of the company's position in the market;

assessment of the market and sales volume;

research on competitors.

Consumers and their segmentation. The first question that must be answered in market research is who is the consumer of the enterprise's products and who may become one in the future.

The identified customers are classified according to their relative homogeneous groups- segments.

Segmentation is also justified for consumers of small business products. For example, such an enterprise can supply its products to the wholesale and retail markets and, on the basis of continuous observation and sampling, determine the characteristics of these segments.

The business plan indicates the main consumers and the principles of their segmentation:

geographical;

demographic;

behavioral;

psychographic.

This uses criteria such as age, gender, nationality or ethnicity, profession, income level, life cycle families.

Demand assessment and selection of target markets. In this section of market research, the number of buyers in each of the selected segments is estimated and demand is measured. Based on these data, the most profitable segments for the enterprise - target markets - are selected. A promising segment is usually considered to be in which there are approximately 20% of buyers. this market acquiring 80% of the goods offered by the enterprise.

For the first year of sales in the same point:

lists the main consumers of the goods, provides data on orders for the product, contracts, written obligations that the consumer has;

are listed potential consumers who have already expressed interest in the product;

potential consumers who have already expressed interest in the product are named, it is explained how the company intends to "win" them.

Consumer motivation. The study of the motives of human behavior when choosing and buying a product is the basis for developing ways to effectively influence the decision of buyers.

When describing the motivation of buyers of the consumer market, motivation factors are indicated:

cultural level of consumers;

social;

personal;

psychological, which often come first.

Buyers of industrial products often evaluate

goods, applying the method of functional cost analysis. It is advisable to carry out such an analysis and manufacturers, putting themselves in the place of the buyer.

When describing the motivation of the main consumers of products industrial applications it is advisable to indicate who the persons are:

initiating a purchase;

influencing the purchase decision;

decision makers;

directly acquiring;

directly using;

testing and forming an opinion about the consumer properties of the product.

This information is needed to establish contacts with these persons and provide them with the necessary influence.

It is also noted how much time it takes to make a decision to purchase a product in different organizations.

The company's position in the market. This paragraph reflects the factors of the company's position in the market, which may affect the sale of products:

enterprise prestige;

relationships with competitors;

financial resources available to the enterprise for marketing activities;

the general structure of the product range;

flexibility of production and marketing programs (the ability to quickly switch to the production and marketing of new products).

Key indicators of the market and sales volume. This item

must present such indicators of the target market as capacity, enterprise share, elasticity of demand. Market growth is predicted and

change in share as demand for 3 - 5 years.

The main factors influencing the growth of the market are described:

industry development trends;

government policy;

change in the demographic composition of the population;

other factors.

Market development forecasting is, first of all, demand forecasting. It is advisable to provide data on forecasting demand for the company's products for 3-5 years. To predict the demand for consumer goods, the following are analyzed:

population dynamics by regions and age groups;

per capita consumption of goods. The analysis of such data allows to identify changes in consumer behavior;

dynamics of incomes of the population, reflecting the movement of expenses Cdj - the weight of the y-th parameter (parametric index e7 - the value of the parametric index of the y-th parameter). Integral indicator of relative competitiveness. If K > 1, then the analyzed product is superior in competitiveness to the sample, if K< 1, то уступает, если К = 1, то находится на одинаковом уровне.

Marketing and sale.

Marketing mechanism research. A study of the marketing mechanism and distribution channels should help to more accurately determine the cost costs of this function of the firm's marketing.

Market segmentation analysis. The theory of market segmentation is based on the premise that one firm in a competitive environment is not able to satisfy all the needs of the market for certain products. And therefore, it should concentrate on the sale of this product in those market segments that are most attractive in terms of its capabilities. The market segmentation process consists of four phrases:

definition of characteristics or criteria on the basis of which the market is divided into segments;

using these characteristics and criteria to identify all significant market segments;

definition of a common target market by combining those market segments that are most in line with the interests of the company;

practical use of market segmentation in marketing and production activities firms.

Methods for forecasting sales of products. The most common methods of marketing products are as follows:

Survey of heads of various services and departments, sales agents of the enterprise. This method is applicable in cases where there are no detailed calculations about the state of the market, there are no complete statistics on sales trends or other products.

Forecasting based on past turnover. This forecasting method is suitable for industries and markets with a stable economic environment, a slightly changing range of goods and services, with a sluggish scientific and technical progress, where significant fluctuations in trade occur extremely rarely.

Analysis of trends, cycles and factors that cause a change in sales volume. This method is most preferred when making long-term forecasts in capital industries.

Statistical regularities identified over the years, trends and dependencies neutralize the effect of random and secondary factors.

Correlation analysis. Determination of statistically significant factors of influence on the sale of the company's products. This analysis logically complements the previous method, but requires serious special and complex, and therefore quite expensive, but not always economically justified market research. However, using this method, the most accurate results can be obtained in the most stable industries in terms of economic conditions.

Forecasting based on the "market share" of the firm's sales. Turnover is predicted as a certain percentage of the company's share in the industry, i.e. sales for the entire industry are first forecast, and then the company's share in the total sales of the entire industry is calculated.

End use analysis. The forecast is based on the estimated order volumes of the main customers of the enterprise.

Application this method requires special research on the main industries that consume the products of this enterprise, the collection and development of significant statistical and factual material. It is most preferable in the sectors of the raw material and energy complex, as well as in enterprises producing components and assemblies.

Trial marketing. The essence of this method is that constituent elements future marketing program for a new product (prices, types of advertising, distribution channels and type of packaging) will be tested on a limited group of consumers. After processing the information received on the volume and growth rate of sales of a new product, the corresponding outlines regarding the sales forecast are distributed throughout the country.

The choice of demand forecasting method and its effectiveness depend on specific conditions and specifics economic activity enterprises.

The most common mistake in making sales forecasts is underestimating the severity of the competitive pressure.

Sales organization. The first question that needs to be answered in this paragraph is: taking into account what needs of customers is the sales or consumption system formed and functioning?

In the West, such methods of sales promotion as selling goods on credit, taking orders by phone or by mail (from catalogs) have become very widespread. As the market for goods and services in our country becomes saturated, these methods of trade will certainly develop.

The following question adjoins this question: what goals does the enterprise set for the product distribution system?

order processing procedure;

choice of quantity, meta location, storage capacity;

the decision to lease or acquire warehouses in the ownership of the enterprise;

used systems of cargo handling;

the level of maintenance of inventory;

method of transporting goods;

Organization of goods distribution management.

It is advisable to compare the decisions of the enterprise on the system of product promotion with the decisions of competitors.

Product distribution channels. When describing the distribution channels of goods, first of all, the need for the participation of intermediaries in the process of promoting the goods to the market or its absence, that is, the sale of goods by the enterprise directly to consumers, is justified. The latter option is mainly used in the supply of industrial products or in the sale of their goods by small businesses.

Formation of demand and sales promotion. This part of the section reflects the four main areas of activity of the enterprise in terms of demand generation and sales promotion:

actual sales promotion;

public relations (propaganda);

personal sale of goods.

When creating a demand generation and sales promotion program, the significance of these four areas of activity in the consumer market and in the market for industrial products is taken into account.

Sales should never be considered in isolation from the process of satisfying customer needs. The other side of the sales problem is how well those characteristics of the project are known to customers that distinguish it from the competitors' project and make it more attractive.

Competition is a struggle for supremacy, as in sports. Competition by American standards is divided into pure competition and rivalry.

Pure competition occurs in industries where many firms produce similar products or services. There is usually no government regulation in industries with pure competition.

If there are few firms in the industry (less than 20 by American standards), competition takes place in a completely different way and is already characterized as rivalry. If one of the rivals significantly reduces the price of his product, then his competitor must follow his example, otherwise he will lose customers.

Competition begins long before the finished product appears on the market. Competing firms may compete with each other to acquire raw materials, materials or equipment at the lowest price, for the most advantageous location of plants and factories, for the best wholesale and distribution structures. retail, for the best engineering and working personnel, etc. Only by successfully competing at these and other levels, you can count on a good result in the final competitive struggle in the market.

There are "pure" competition between firms, monopolistic, and intra-company ("accounting") competition. Pure competition assumes that firms, entering the market, do not compete with each other in any way and freely compete for the consumer.

Intra-company or "accounting" competition appeared in the 1920s in large American companies. The essence of this type of competition lies in the fact that various divisions within one large entity (concern, holding, consortium, etc.) compete with each other in the field of product quality improvement, as well as in the field of production and marketing costs. This competition is revealed by comparing the financial and accounting documents of various departments, from which the name originates. It can acquire a turnover that is undesirable for the entire company if it is a question of the production by divisions not of some components, but of final homogeneous products (cars, radio and telephone equipment, etc.)

Functional competition arises from the fact that any need can be satisfied in a variety of ways. The factor of functional competition must be taken into account, even if it is a unique product.

Specific competition arises due to the presence of goods intended for the same purpose, but having differences in some essential characteristics.

Subject competition occurs as a result of the release of identical goods that differ only in the quality of workmanship or even the same in quality, but with minor differences.

The modern theory of competitiveness, which was developed in the books of Harvard University professor Michael Porter, distinguishes only two types competitive advantage:

lower costs;

specialization.

Lower cost refers not just to lower production costs than competitors, but to a firm's ability to design, manufacture, and market a product more efficiently than its competitors. In other words, to achieve this type of competitive advantage, one must be able to organize at a lower cost in more short time the entire cycle of operations with the goods; from its design study to sale end customer. Failure to build this entire chain will negate success in any of its links.

Not as clear as it might seem at first glance, and understanding the essence of the type of competitive advantage, which is denoted by the word specialization. This is not a focus on the release of only a certain range of products, as one might think, but the ability to meet the special needs of customers and receive a premium price for this, that is, a price higher than competitors on average. In other words, to ensure this type of competitive advantage, it is necessary to learn the art of standing out in the crowd of competitors, offering customers a product that is noticeably different either by a high level of quality with a standard set of items that determine this quality, or by a non-standard set of properties that are of real interest to the buyer.

At the same time, at any given moment in time, you can build your strategy for ensuring competitiveness, relying on only one type of competitive advantage - either on lower costs, attracting buyers with the relative cheapness of goods compared to similar products from other manufacturers, or on specialization, arousing interest among the most demanding customers who demand above all high quality. But it is impossible to combine both types of competitive advantages - such an attempt will only lead to failure, which has been proven by many examples.

With this interpretation of the types of competitive advantages in mind, one can choose the most appropriate strategy for ensuring and maintaining competitiveness.

All types of competitive advantages are divided into two groups:

low order benefits;

high order benefits.

Low order benefits are associated with

use of cheap labor, raw materials, energy.

The low order of these competitive advantages is due to the fact that they are very unstable and can be easily lost either due to rising prices and wages, or due to the fact that these cheap production resources can also be used (or repurchased) by competitors. In other words, low-order advantages are advantages with little persistence, unable to provide an advantage over competitors for a long time.

High-order benefits include:

unique products;

unique technology and specialists;

good reputation of the company.

SELLER'S MARKET

SELLER'S MARKET

(seller\'s market) A market in which conditions are more favorable for sellers than for buyers. If sellers are few and in no hurry to part with their assets, and buyers are numerous and eager to satisfy their desires quickly, then it is very likely that prices will rise and conditions of sale will be more favorable for sellers.

Economy. Dictionary. - M.: "INFRA-M", Publishing house "Ves Mir". J. Black. General editorial staff: Doctor of Economics Osadchaya I.M.. 2000 .

SELLER'S MARKET

a situation in the market in which the demand for a product from buyers represented on the market exceeds the supply of this product from sellers.

Raizberg B.A., Lozovsky L.Sh., Starodubtseva E.B.. Modern economic dictionary. - 2nd ed., corrected. Moscow: INFRA-M. 479 p.. 1999 .

Economic dictionary. 2000 .

See what "SELLER'S MARKET" is in other dictionaries:

A market situation in which the quantity demanded by buyers for a product exceeds the quantity supplied by sellers. In English: Bid market See also: Bear Markets Finam Financial Dictionary ... Financial vocabulary

- (sellers' market) A market situation characterized by an excess of demand over supply, which allows sellers to raise prices. However, at a certain point, buyers stop buying at excessively high prices, and sellers have to again ... Glossary of business terms

A position in the market when demand exceeds supply... encyclopedic Dictionary economics and law

seller's market- situation in the market when demand exceeds supply ... Terminological dictionary of a librarian on socio-economic topics

SELLER'S MARKET- a situation in the market when demand exceeds supply, as a result of which prices rise. See also COMMODITY MARKET CONDITION… Big Economic Dictionary

seller's market- SELLER'S MARKET A short-term market situation in which excess demand is formed, causing prices to rise, which is beneficial to the seller. Compare: Buyer's market ... Dictionary-reference book on economics

SELLER'S MARKET- (eller market) exists when demand exceeds the supply of goods. In such a situation, almost any available product, any service finds immediate sale on the market, even if they do not fully meet the requirements that ... Foreign economic explanatory dictionary

SELLER'S MARKET- - the economic situation in the market, in which prices rise as a result of a shortage of goods, i.e. the quantity demanded at current prices exceeds the quantity supplied... Concise Dictionary economist

seller's market- a situation on the market when sellers have an advantage, since the buyers' needs to purchase real estate at the offered prices exceed the sellers' ability to saturate the market ... Housing Encyclopedia

seller's market- a market situation in which the demand for a product from buyers represented on the market exceeds the supply of this product from sellers ... Dictionary of economic terms

Books

• Vylegzhanin Veniamin Nikolaevich. This book will be interesting and useful for those who want to learn how to navigate the real estate market and protect themselves from scammers. Armed with knowledge, you will choose the right course of action, ...
• How to sell / buy an apartment. Memo for the seller and buyer of real estate, Vylegzhanin VN This book will be interesting and useful to those who want to learn how to navigate the real estate market and protect themselves from scammers. Armed with knowledge, you will choose the right course of action, ...