DEFINITION

Product output is considered an indicator of its volume, reflecting its quantity per unit of labor input.

Formula average annual output one worker is of great importance and is used when calculating such an indicator as labor productivity in an enterprise.

The output is directly proportional to the productivity of labor. For this reason, the more products each worker produces (a unit of labor costs), the higher productivity becomes.

The formula for the average annual output of one worker is presented in the following form:

B = Q / T

Here B is the performance indicator,

Q is the total cost (quantity) of products manufactured in a year;

T - labor costs for the release of a given volume of products.

labor costs can consist of the index:

• The number of workers who are involved in the production of the corresponding number of products,
• hours worked, which is measured in man-hours (or days) worked.

To further calculate labor productivity, the following formulas are used:

• average hourly output:

Hour.=Q/T

Here Q is the volume of products produced per hour,

T is the actual number of man-hours worked by workers.

• average daily output

Int.=Q/T

Here Q is the volume of products manufactured per day,

T is the actual number of man-days.

• average monthly (quarterly, annual, etc.) output.

Vmes.=Q/N

Here Q is the volume of products produced for the corresponding period of time,

N is the average payroll number of workers per month (quarter, year).

Methods for determining the average annual output

There is a classification of methods for calculating production depending on the units of measurement of production volume:

• the natural method (conditionally natural) is used in the production of homogeneous products at individual workplaces or the release of products by production teams. Using this method, it is possible to determine the production of a specific type of product (work, service), so the value is expressed in natural units (pieces).
• the cost method is used in terms of the value of the issued or products sold. This method is used by companies engaged in the production of heterogeneous products.

The most popular method is the cost method. However, it has a significant drawback, which lies in the fact that the calculation of labor productivity (LT) for the development of a cost expression can be overestimated. This is because the calculation results include the cost of past labor (including the cost of raw materials and materials used, the volume of cooperative deliveries, etc.)

Examples of problem solving

EXAMPLE 1

EXAMPLE 2

Labor productivity (P) is measured by the amount of work (products, turnover, services) produced by one employee per unit of time (hour, shift, week, month, year), and is calculated by the formula:

P \u003d O / H where O - the amount of work per unit of time; H is the number of employees.

Labor productivity- labor efficiency. Labor productivity can be measured by the amount of time spent per unit of output or by the amount of output produced by an employee over a period of time. Pt=Q/Zht, where Q is output, Zht is the cost of living labor. It is measured through two indicators: production (direct indicator) and labor intensity (indirect). Depending on the units in which labor costs are expressed, it can be annual, daily and hourly. When measuring labor productivity by the labor method, the time standards for the production of a unit of output or the sale of a unit of goods are used:

Pm=Om/Vf where Pm - labor productivity measured by the labor method; Om - the amount of work in units of standard work time; Vf - actual operating time.

Indicators of the efficiency of agricultural production on reclaimed lands.

Rational use of reclaimed land includes full, proper and efficient land use.

Full use of reclaimed massifs in agriculture, it means the degree of their development for arable land, hayfields, pastures and perennial plantations. In the republic, due to untimely grassing of areas after the reconstruction of reclamation systems and the completion of their new construction, more than 2% of agricultural land is not used annually.

Proper land use determines the voluntariness of the choice of forms of management and the terms of lease of improved land, the provision of favorable conditions for the economic functioning of all land users by creating a compact land mass and convenient transport accessibility, the inadmissibility of occupying highly fertile drained and other valuable lands for development.

Efficient management of reclamation agriculture related to performance, cost-benefit ratio. The effect of land reclamation in agriculture manifests itself in a number of ways:

the areas of radically improved lands are expanding due to the involvement in the circulation of swamps, wastelands, areas under shrubs and small forests

the coefficient of land use is increasing as a result of eliminating the unfavorable water regime, removing boulders and stones, and carrying out other agro-reclamation measures

the contours of the fields increase and their configuration improves, which creates conditions for the high-performance use of technical means

soil fertility is increased and conditions are created for improving the structure of land and sown areas, cultivating more intensive crops, and expanding re-sowing.

A program of ECOLOGIZATION of the agro-industrial complex of the Russian Federation is needed, including, first of all, the greening of agriculture, that is, the fight against soil erosion, the use of organic fertilizers, agroforestry, cultural melioration, liming, grass planting, minimizing the technogenic impact on the soil, the use of crop rotations, etc.

Therefore, for a comprehensive assessment of the economic efficiency of the agricultural use of reclaimed lands, a system of indicators is used that:

determine the level of productivity and efficiency of the use of reclaimed land (output in kind and value terms, gross and net income, profit per unit of reclaimed area)

characterize various aspects of the efficiency of agricultural production on reclaimed lands (labor productivity, profitability, capital productivity, gross output, gross and net income, profit per 100 rubles of production costs, cost of 1 centner of the most important types of products, payback period of capital investments)

determine the main factors for increasing the efficiency of ameliorative agriculture (the structure of lands and sown areas, capital equipment and capital-labor ratio, material intensity, etc.).

The value of the area of ​​agricultural land comparable in terms of cadastral value is determined by the formula:

Where
- area comparable by cadastral value, ha;
-cadastral value of 1 hectare of farmland;
- average cadastral value of 1 hectare of farmland in the constituent entity of the Russian Federation where this farm is located, rubles;
- the area of ​​agricultural land of this farm, ha.

Gross output- this is all agricultural products created in a year. The value of gross output is the sum of the value of marketable and non-commercial products, that is:

GDP - gross output, rub.

TP - commercial products, that is, those that are sold outside the economy. It is valued at its selling price.

NP - non-marketable products - this is the part of the gross output that remains on the farm for its needs (fodder, seeds, etc.). It is valued at the cost of its production in the given economy.

Gross income(VD) is the difference between the cost of gross output and material costs (VD = VP-MZ).

net income- this is profit, that is, the difference between the cost of commercial products and the commercial cost (NP = TP-
)

Certain indicators of the proposed system should be used depending on the objectives of the assessment. The choice of the most rational direction is carried out by highlighting the decisive indicator, weighing the indicators according to their impact on final result agricultural activities on reclaimed lands.

The most effective will be the level of use reclaimed land, which ensures greater production of agricultural products and profits while steadily maintaining and increasing soil fertility and preventing possible negative effects on the environment.

The potential of radically improved soils makes it possible to raise the overall productivity of crops.

Real estate depreciation concept. Types of wear and methods for their determination.

Wear is the actual loss in the cost of RP improvements as a result of the impact of a number of factors that have different sources of origin.

Types of wear - 1) physical, 2) functional (obsolescence, lack of components - no intercom in the entrance, super-improvement - there was a pharmacy with a sign - the bank has become, it needs to remove the sign), 3) economic (external).

Calculation of physical depreciation: 1) Expert method - based on the "Rules for assessing the physical depreciation of residential buildings" VSN-53-86 Gosgrazhdanstroy

I% \u003d ∑ (Special weight i *% wear i) / 100

2) Economic life method If/Sv=EV/SEZH

The concept is “labor force”, “human capital”, “labor potential”. Components of labor potential.

Traditional for economic science is the problem of the influence of characteristics (qualities) of a person on labor productivity. So, Marshall analyzed "the conditions on which the health and strength of the population depend - physical, mental, moral" [Marshall. He noted that this corresponds to the “great classification of the elements of productivity put forward” by km, in which the following were distinguished: a) “body, b) “mind”, c) soul” (! ib, Verstand und I set s) >.

To determine the possibilities of human participation in economic processes, the concepts of "labor force" and " human capital". Under,working force it is customary to understand a person’s ability to work, that is, with the totality of his “physical and intellectual data that can be used in production. In practice, the labor force is characterized, as a rule, by indicators of health, education and professionalism. Human capital is considered as a set of qualities that determine productivity and can become sources of income for a person, family, enterprise and society. Such qualities are usually considered health, natural abilities, education, professionalism, mobility.

The set of characteristics that are used in the literature to determine the possibilities of effective labor does not fully correspond to the realities of the modern economy. It is expedient to expand this set on the basis of the concept true new potential. E its components should characterize:

1) psycho-physiological possibilities of participation in socially useful activities;

opportunities for normal social contacts;

ability to generate new ideas, methods, images, ideas;

rationality of behavior;

availability of knowledge and skills necessary to perform certain duties and types of work;

supply in the labor market.

These aspects correspond to the following labor potential components:

health;

morality and ability to work in a team;

creative potential;

activity;

organization and assertiveness

education;

professionalism;

working hours resources.

The indicators characterizing these components can relate both to an individual and to various teams, including the personnel of the enterprise and the population of the country as a whole (Table 1.1).

The labor potential of a person is part of his potential as a person, that is, in relation to the individual, labor potential is a part human potential, which is formed on the basis of natural data (abilities), education, upbringing and life experience.

Table 1.1 Examples of characteristics of labor potential

Concept, role, principles and methods of production planning. Types and features of plans in a market economy. Tasks of sectoral and territorial planning.

Plan- this is a list of measures to achieve the set task (goal), which, in the form of tasks and indicators, reflects the main goals and stages of the activity of economic entities (enterprises, sectors of the economy, regions, the country as a whole) and ways to implement them. For implementation, usually, the best version of the plan is recommended. The optimality criterion can be economic, social, environmental and other indicators and restrictions.

Planning- a special form of activity of managerial personnel, which is associated with the development, approval, communication to the executors of planned targets, control over their implementation and their adjustment, if necessary, i.e. it is the process of studying the future, developing, justifying and making current and forecast decisions.

Basic purpose planning is:

at the enterprise level, it is a solution to the problems of production and marketing of products in order to achieve the set economic social or other goal (profit maximization, cost minimization).

at the sectoral and state level of planning, the task of planning is to establish administrative, legal and economic regulators for the development of an economic entity (region, country as a whole), taking into account the interests of science and the state as a whole.

Planning principles These are the basic rules that must be observed in the planning process. Fr. economist A. Fayol proposed 5 basic principles:

1) Unity - suggests that the plan has a common systemic character, because any economy. the subject is a system of individual interrelated elements, and a change in the magnitude of individual factors causes a change in performance.

2) Participation - each employee must participate in the development, adoption and implementation of management decisions. Participation provides a sense of ownership in obtaining results, work for oneself is better planned than being planned by another.

3) Continuity - provides that another plan is prepared in advance to replace one plan, the so-called. rolling planning.

4) Flexibility is the ability of the plan to change direction, even the goal, constant refinement, adjustment of plans under the influence external environment and internal factors.

5) Accuracy is the correctness or validity of indicators, the focus of plans on the diet. use of enterprise resources.

All principles (rules) of planning are interconnected and should be used together.

The accuracy and detail of planned calculations decrease when moving from short-term to medium- and long-term plans. In our country, in addition to those mentioned, such principles as purposefulness, comprehensiveness, and the principle of the leading link are also used. The purposefulness of the plan-I means the need to allocate def. goals, i.e. before acting, every manager must know what he wants to achieve and what he can.

Complexity means the joint solution of 2 or more tasks in one plan.

The principle of the leading link provides for the allocation in the plans of the most. important priority goals. This allows you to deal with the dispersion of resources.

All planning principles are interrelated and should be used together in planning.

Planning Methods formed on the basis of planning principles.

There are the following planning methods:

1. System analysis - provides for the development of a development plan for an economic entity. The following main directions of its activity are considered: areas of interest, conditions of activity, tactics and policy, organizational structure of enterprise management, competitive environment. Based on the division of more complex tasks into simpler ones: country, regions, industries, enterprises, divisions.

2. Program-target method - used in planning and forecasting in one direction, to solve one problem. It is part of the system analysis. It is aimed at isolating one important task from the system and drawing up a program to solve this problem (housing for military personnel, clean water in Russia).

3. Balance method - refers to the most common primary planning methods, which are not subdivided into smaller ones. Implemented by compiling dec. balance sheets, i.e. comparison of resource needs and sources of their coverage. There are material, financial, labor, resource, summary. The main task of the balance calculation is its linkage, i.e. ensuring equality between the availability and consumption of resources. If the needs are greater than their availability, then it is necessary to increase the production of these resources. If the availability of resources is greater than the needs, then the opposite is done, i.e. plan to reduce production, reduce purchases and increase consumption.

4. Normative method - these are calculations for the definition and justification of plans using a system of norms and standards, within which the simplest economic processes take place. The application of this method allows you to ensure the rational use of limited resources and reduce the time and money spent on planning. The norm is the maximum allowable cost of resources per unit of output. The standard is a planned indicator, a characteristic rate of resource consumption and the degree of its use. There are technical and economic standards, tax standards, standards for mandatory payments and deductions, financial standards. The most common, primary method of planning.

5. Economic and mathematical methods make it possible to determine and justify the value of planned indicators using the methods of applied mathematics, mat. statistics and modeling, use computer technology in calculations.

There are also planning methods:

according to the time of appearance - improved, traditional and new.

by approach - general and functional

according to the direction of the material presented - descriptive, empirical, graphic.

Types of plans-Classification of plans:

By timing: forecasts (>=10 years), long-term (5-10 years), medium-term (2-5 years), short-term (1 year), current (1-6 months), operational (for 1 shift, day, week ...)

2. By scale: global, international; state; regional; industry; district, city; intracompany; branded.

The Need for Planning explained by the tasks that it solves:

optimal use of limited resources;

proportionally develop all divisions of economic entities ( divisions of the enterprise, company, region, industry);

the need to take into account social, environmental and other consequences of management decisions;

taking into account the achievements of science and technology;

the need to take into account the spontaneous nature of changes in the market situation;

liquidation of consequences of crisis situations, military operations, natural disasters.

Peculiarities: A market economy is characterized by more difficult conditions than in an administrative-command economy, since the ownership changes (for resources, means of production, products), the interests of entrepreneurs and managers (profit comes to the fore), fewer indicators of plans and forecasts regulated by the state, decisions must be taken in a competitive environment, uncertainty, in the absence of complete and reliable initial data. All this limits the scope of long-term plans and forecasts, factual methods, the scope of operational and current planning, expert methods, and the importance of advisory, indicative plans is also growing.

AT market conditions planning and forecasting is more important than in a command economy.

Industry planning – component economic and social development country, which takes into account the industry-specific features of the production and sale of goods.

main goal OP is the planned and proportional development of the country's economic sectors and ensuring compliance with a unified technical and economic development policy within each of the sectors.

Key Features OP (in the field of material production) lies in the fact that at different levels of management during planning, various indicators are determined, for example, at the enterprise level, the volume of production, the range of products, the rate of their change and other similar indicators are determined.

At the level of the industry and the country as a whole, the social product, the final product, and the national income are also determined.

Key Features OP (in the field of scientific and technical progress):

At different levels of management, when planning, various indicators are determined. So, for example, at the level of p / n, the volume of production, the range of products, rates and changes, etc. are determined, at the level of the industry and the country as a whole, the total product (general product minus the cost of materials) is also determined; national income (newly created value of net product); total product - depreciation cost of materials.

Key Features(in the field of social development).

The need for planning and social development is explained by:

strengthening the role social factors in the life of society during the transition to the market.

Necessity state regulation supporting the implementation of social programs.

In contrast to economic development plans (where the target is given in terms of production volumes), social development plans are given targets in terms of the volume of consumption of goods or services.

The social development plans assess the level of achievement of the main social standards in the following areas:

1) providing employees with working conditions (availability of jobs, safety and comfort of work);

2) providing the population with conditions for living and recreation (housing, school, medicine, culture);

3) provision of regions with natural resources and compliance of working conditions and forecasting with economic standards.

The indicators of the plans are mainly determined by the normative method.

Problems of territorial planning.

The specific tasks of territorial planning follow from the definition of its purpose in Urban Planning Code RF (Article 9, paragraph 1): “Territorial planning is aimed at determining in the documents of territorial planning the purpose of the territory based on a combination of social, economic, environmental and other factors in order to ensure sustainable development of the territory, development of engineering, transport and social infrastructures, ensuring accounting interests of citizens and their associations, Russian Federation, constituent entities of the Russian Federation, municipalities".

Project proposals for territorial planning are aimed at achieving sustainable socio-economic development through the subsequent implementation of the planned activities by local governments of the city district through urban planning, land, investment, and economic policies.

The Town Planning Code of the Russian Federation provides for mutual coordination of measures for territorial planning and land use.

The procedure and amounts for determining fees for environmental pollution, the conditions for granting benefits.

Payments for harmful impact on fixed assets are classified:

by type of harmful effects:

For air emissions

For discharges into water bodies (surface and underground)

For waste disposal

For noise, vibration, radiation, electromagnetic radiation, i.e. for non-traditional harmful effects.

2) by types of payments:

Payments for pollution within the limit (within the PDL and MPE) - payments are attributed to production costs.

Payments for pollution in excess of MPE, MDL, within the temporarily agreed limits of VSS and VSL are charged from the profit remaining with the enterprise.

Penalties for over-limit pollution are charged from the profit remaining with the enterprise.

The value of MPE and MDL is set, as a rule, based on the MPC of the pollutant and technologically justified volumes of emissions and discharges.

VVS and VSL are established by the relevant local authorities of the system of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation individually for each enterprise, taking into account its financial, organizational and technological capabilities.

In the general payments of the enterprise for environmental pollution, the costs of the following types of environmental protection measures are protected:

To improve the efficiency of manufactured products;

To reduce resource consumption and pollution;

To reduce the concentration of toxic emissions and discharges.

2) As a matter of priority, the costs of activities, the implementation of the main provisions of international agreements, regional programs for nature protection are subject to offset against payments.

3) the costs of the measures provided for by the technical documentation are not subject to offset.

For air pollution:

Mipdv \u003d 0.1 * mi a; Mivsv \u003d 0.8 * mi a; where

Mipdv and Mivsv - the mass of the emission of the i-th type of pollutant into the atmosphere, respectively, the maximum permissible and temporarily agreed, t / year;

mi a is the actual mass of pollutant emissions into the atmosphere, t/year

0.1; 0.8 - conditional coefficients.

Then the actual mass of the release is distributed in accordance with Mpv and Mvv.

H1ia \u003d H1iba * Kea * 1.2, where

H2ia \u003d H2iba * Kea * 1.2

H1ia and H2ia are differentiated standards for the payment for the emission of pollutants into the atmosphere within the limits of the MPE and above the MPE within the limits of the UER, respectively, rub/ton.

Н1iba and Н2iba - basic norms of payment for the emission of pollutants into the atmosphere within the limits of the MPE and over the MPE within the limits of the EAM, respectively, rub/ton.

Kea is a coefficient that takes into account environmental factors (the state of atmospheric air).

Differentiated by economic region. For CER=1.9 it is applied with additional area 1.2. Ppdv \u003d mfipdv * H1ia; Pvsv \u003d mfivsv * H2ia; Shsl \u003d mphial * H2ia * 5; Psum \u003d Ppdv + Pvsv + Shs / l

For pollution of water bodies Мipdl= 0.365*MACi*V

Mivsl=H* Mipdl, where

Mipdl and Mivsl - the mass of discharge of the i-th type of pollutants into water bodies, within the limits of the LL and above the LL within the limits of the LSL, respectively, t/year.

MPCi - the maximum allowable concentration of the i-th type of pollutant in case of pollution of water bodies g/m3.

V- actual volume Wastewater enterprises, thousand m3/day

For waste pollution.

Hjotx \u003d Hjb otx * Ke otx, where

Hjotkh and Hjb otkh are differentiated and basic rates for waste disposal of the j-th hazard class within the established limits, respectively, rub/ton.

Ke otkh - coefficient taking into account environmental factors (soil condition), for CER = 1.6

Pl \u003d mfil * Njoth; Shs/l= mfis/l* Hjoth*5

Fully or partially exempt from environmental pollution charges:

Enterprises and organization of the socio-cultural sphere;

Budget users.

These benefits are provided only if the user of natural resources complies with the established pollution standards. Otherwise, payments are collected on a general basis.

Not recognized as an object of payment use of water bodies for the purpose of:

Water abstraction for disaster relief;

For agricultural needs;

For fishing;

Water protection measures;

Recreation for sanitary and medical purposes, etc.

Flow methods for the construction of irrigation and drainage systems, scheduling, network modeling, development of technological maps and other tools for organizing and technology of irrigation and drainage works as a means of implementing existing management methods.

The in-line method is a method of organizing construction, which provides a systematic, rhythmic release of finished products. construction products on the basis of continuous and uniform work of labor collectives of the same composition, provided with timely and complete delivery of all necessary material and technical resources.

In-line construction production is characterized by a continuous and uniform movement of a constant composition of workers and tools both inside the facilities under construction and from one facility to another during the mass construction of buildings of the same type, which makes it possible to most rationally use the production capacities of construction organizations, reduce construction time and cost. The best results of the in-line construction method are achieved at typical housing construction objects (quarters, microdistricts, workers' settlements, villages), a complex of industrial enterprises and linearly extended objects (pipelines, power lines, communications, roads, canals, etc.).

Let us consider an example of calculating the arrangement of machines of a set and constructing a flow cyclogram when organizing work by the in-line method on a section of a canal 10 km long using a set of concrete-laying machines MB-4, MB-5, MB-6.

The parameters of the channel are taken: the width along the bottom is 2.0 m, the depth is 2.0 m, the laying of the slopes is 1:1.5. The thickness of the concrete cladding is 12 cm.

The leading machine in the set will be the MB-5 concrete paver with variable capacity P cm - 82 m 3 / shift (according to B-43 standards).

The length of the interchangeable gripper for laying the concrete mixture is determined by the formula

ω - cross-sectional area of ​​the cladding

ω \u003d p δ \u003d 9.6 0.12 \u003d 1.15;

p - channel lining perimeter, 9.6 m;

δ - lining thickness, 0.12 m.

With a distance between the transverse seams l= 4 m on one interchangeable gripper will need to be cut

overall length

L = R I n\u003d 9.2 17 \u003d 156 p.m.,

R I - the length of the perimeter of the cladding without shoulders.

Replaceable productivity of the seam cutter MB-6

t t - technical productivity, l.m./h;

t p is the duration of the shift, h;

k 1 - coefficient of transition from technical to operational performance;

k 2 - coefficient of transition from operational to average hourly productivity.

Seam cutting machine load factor

In his free time from the main work, the seam cutter will be used to apply the film-forming composition to the concrete surface.

On the two grips preceding the concrete laying, the laying of the rail tracks removed from the sections after the work of the seam cutter will be carried out, the channel profiling and soil moistening will be carried out.

The length of the interchangeable gripper for the excavator-profiler MB-4 from the condition of its continuous operation should be

V- working speed of movement, m/min.

At the lowest operating travel speed, the load factor of the profiler

Due to the fact that the load factor of the profiler is below 0.5, it is advisable to perform work with it in one shift, and laying concrete in two. Then the profiler load will be equal to

With- Number of shifts per day.

In his free time from the main work, the profiler is used to moisten the base soil.

The process of sealing joints is released into an independent private flow after the concrete has gained 5-day strength.

The labor productivity of insulators must be at least 71 running meters of the finished channel per shift.

When developing a flow cyclogram, it is accepted:

length of interchangeable grip = 71 running meters;

number of interchangeable grips n h = 1000/71 = 140;

flow rhythm t= I shift;

sealing of joints - 5 days after laying concrete in the cladding (that is, after 10 working shifts).

In this case, the duration of the full deployment of the flow

T development =( n- one)· t=(14-1) 1 = 13 work shifts,

n= 14 - the number of grips on which construction processes are performed (taking into account 10 grips of concrete hardening before sealing the joints).

The total duration of the flow in the considered section of the channel

T = n h + T development = 140 + 13 = 153 shifts.

Length of the working front of the kit

L f = · n= 71 14 = 994 m.

scheduling is an integral element of the organization of construction production at all its stages and levels. The normal course of construction is possible only when it is thought out in advance in what sequence the work will be carried out, how many workers, machines, mechanisms and other resources will be required for each work. Underestimation of this entails inconsistency in the actions of performers, interruptions in their work, delays in terms and, of course, an increase in the cost of construction. To prevent such situations, a calendar plan is drawn up, which performs the function of a work schedule within the accepted duration of construction. Obviously, the changing situation at the construction site may require a significant adjustment of such a plan, however, in any situation, the construction manager must clearly understand what needs to be done in the coming days, weeks, months.

The purpose of scheduling when developing a project is:

substantiation of the given or identification of the technically and resource-possible duration of the project;

determining the timing of the project implementation and commissioning of individual parts of the project, as well as the timing of the implementation of certain major works;

determination of the size of capital investments and scope of work in certain calendar periods;

determination of the terms of delivery of the main structures, materials and equipment for the implementation of the project;

determination of the required number and timing of the use of personnel and the main types of equipment.

The scheduling process consists in studying the available and preparing the necessary data, determining the time parameters for the implementation of the project of the complex as a whole and the timing of the construction of individual buildings and structures that make up its composition, distributing capital investments, forming production lines, scheduling resource consumption over time in accordance with estimated time for completion of work.

network diagram is a graph in which all elements of the technological process are combined by a network of mutual and indirect links.

The sequence for developing a network diagram is as follows:

All works to be performed on the construction of structures are grouped so that they can be performed by one or more complex or specialized teams.

A card-determinant of works and resources of the network diagram is compiled

A network diagram model is being compiled

Network diagram parameters are calculated

Network optimization in progress

The basis for building a network diagram model should be based on:

Technological sequence of execution certain types works

Possibility of simultaneous performance of various types of construction and installation works and linking them in time

Possibility of performing various work by teams of permanent staff

Equal need for labor force, what is it in individual professions, and in general for the object

Compliance with the flow of work

Compliance with labor protection and safety regulations.

After compiling the network diagram model, its main parameters are calculated:

Early and late start and finish of works;

duration of the critical path; activities on the critical path;

Total and partial slack for activities not on the critical path.

Routing contains a set of measures for the organization of labor with the most efficient use of modern means of mechanization, technological equipment, tools and devices. The technological map includes the most progressive and rational methods for the technology of construction production, which help to reduce the time and improve the quality of work, reduce their cost. The technological map provides not only economical and high-quality, but also safe execution of work, since it contains regulatory requirements and safety rules. 3. The presence of organizational and technological documents, including technological maps, and their use in the construction industry largely determine the adequacy and competitiveness of a construction organization. 4. Technological maps can be used when construction company licensing- as documents confirming the readiness of the organization to carry out work, in the certification of quality systems and construction products - as enterprise standards. 5. Technological maps are developed according to the types of construction and installation and specialized works for technological processes, as a result of which finished structural elements of buildings and structures are created, as well as technological equipment, pipelines, heating, ventilation, water supply systems, etc. 6. Technological map usually consists of the following sections:

Application area; - general provisions; - organization and technology of work performance; - requirements for the quality of work; - the need for material and technical resources; - safety and labor protection; - technical and economic indicators. 7. Composition technological map may be changed depending on the specifics and complexity of the technological process: shortened or supplemented with new sections. So, when developing and describing a simple technological process, the sections “General Provisions” and “Technical and Economic Indicators” may be absent, while developing and describing a complex technological process, the section “Organization and technology of work performance” can be divided into two sections - “Organization of work” and "Technology of work".

Technologies of irrigation and reclamation works. In the process of designing the technology of erection of monolithic and precast-monolithic structures, the student must master:

progressive technology for the production of concrete, formwork and a set of reinforcing works and installation of prefabricated elements;

composition and application of the Uniform norms of production and prices;

the sequence of designing the production of works at a separate facility.

provisions and requirements of SNiP, materials on the methodology for choosing machines, variant design of technological processes.

The following should be taken as starting points when designing the production of concrete and other works:

complex mechanization, flow and industrial methods of work, giving a reduction in construction time with strict observance and implementation of the fundamentals of technology (basic rules) for the production of concrete work, especially the estimated intensity of laying concrete mix;

observance of the zonal cutting of the structure for reasons of various operating conditions of its individual parts and cutting into sections with temperature-sedimentary seams.

The basic rules (the basis of technology and organization) for the production of concrete work are:

timely and continuous overlapping of the working layers of the laid concrete mix in the concreting block, i.е. overlapping of the working layers before the start of setting, before the start of hydration of cement in the concrete mixture - this causes the cutting of the structure into concreting blocks of certain sizes with the maximum allowable area, depending on the capacity of the concrete plant;

ensuring normal heat and moisture conditions for concrete hardening after its laying in all conditions, especially in extreme ones (hot time and in winter).

Compliance with the basic rules for the production of concrete work necessitates preparation for it, namely:

designing classes and selecting the composition of the concrete mixture by zones for summer and winter concreting conditions;

designing the temperature regime of concrete hardening in winter and summer;

designing technological schemes for the supply and placement of concrete mix and the necessary conditions (measures) for the reliability of their implementation in winter and summer.

Ownership of real estate, its three components. Other property rights.

Ownership of real estate is a set of legal norms fixing and protecting the ownership of real estate physical. and legal persons providing for a certain amount of the owner's rights in relation to the property belonging to him, the methods and limits of the exercise of these rights. Provides for ownership and control.

Ownership– physical control over the object. Possibility to actually possess, to have, to keep on your balance sheet.

Use- the possibility of exploitation of consumption, by extracting useful properties.

Disposition– the ability to perform actions that determine the legal fate of the object (donate, sell, bequeath)

Advantages and disadvantages of a sole proprietorship in market economy. The concept of "peasant economy", the purpose of their creation. Legislative acts about the peasant (farm) economy, summary these documents.

Farming is the primary link in agricultural production and the most efficient form of management. Farming is understood as a voluntary family labor association of persons jointly leading agricultural enterprises. production of a commodity nature, based mainly on the personal labor of the peasant, members of his family, joint ownership of the means of production, grown products and income (profit).

Farming is an equal and independent form of management in the agro-industrial complex along with other forms. It independently determines the directions of its activities, the structure and size of production, sales channels, products, chooses partners for joint activities, including foreign ones, and organizes the production process. Economic relations with state bodies, agricultural and other enterprises are carried out on the basis of contracts, taxes are paid to the budget, etc.

Intervention of the state and other bodies in the production, commercial and other activities of the farm is prohibited by law, except in special cases.

The maximum size of the land plot of a farm plot is determined by local authorities, taking into account local conditions, the type of agricultural land. activities and possibilities of processing the provided lands.

If one of the members of the farm leaves its composition, the means of production in kind (with the exception of those in personal ownership) do not belong to the division, and the due share is compensated in cash.

When organizing a farm on an undeveloped territory, where there are no industrial, non-industrial facilities, the state can fully or partially assume its primary arrangement, as well as the costs associated with the construction of reclamation systems. At the same time, the corresponding investment and the created objects become the property of the farm.

Farm households may join associations on a voluntary basis. The first experience of farms in our country showed that they can respond more flexibly and quickly to changes in consumer demand, are more adapted to the production of scarce types of products and, therefore, contribute to the diversification of the country's food market.

Legislative acts.

Law of the RSFSR dated 11/22/90 N348-1 (as amended on 12/24/93) “On the peasant (farm) economy. This law defines the economic, social and legal framework organization and activities of the cross. (farm.) farms and their associations on the territory of the RSFSR.

Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of 01.24.92 N44 “On measures of state support for the cross. (farms) farms in 1992.”

Decree of the President of the Russian Federation dated 27/07.93 T1139 “On some measures to support cross (farm) farms and agricultural enterprises. cooperatives”

Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of June 21, 1996 N723 “On measures to stabilize the economic situation and develop reforms in the agro-industrial complex”

Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of 29.04.94 N 406 “Issues of lending to peasant (farmer) households” Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of 24.12.93 N2287 “On the implementation of the land legislation of the Russian Federation in accordance with the constitution of the Russian Federation”.

Advantages and disadvantages of sole proprietorship in a market economy.

KFH members are able-bodied family members and other citizens. One is the head of the KFH.

Sources of formation of property of KFH:

cash and mat. Wed KFH;

income received from the sale of products, works, services, as well as other types of activities;

income from securities;

bank loans;

gratuitous charitable contributions, donations and other sources not prohibited by law.

The property of the KFH belongs to its members on the rights of common ownership. KFH independently determines the direction of its activities, can engage in any type of activity not prohibited by law, but retained. As processing s.kh. products.

ADVANTAGES:

ease of design;

ease of entry into the market, because agricultural market products closest to their competition;

flexibility of economic activities, the ability to quickly respond to changes in market conditions;

savings on on-farm transportation;

LIMITATIONS:

Untimely payments for products handed over by the state;

Starting capital is very small;

Insufficient level of knowledge and laws of the market economy;

Sales problems;

Lack of service organizations of peasant farms.

Principles and methods of forecasting social economic development.

Principles of forecasting.

For forecasting as one of the stages of the planning process, all the principles of planning (unity, continuity, flexibility, accuracy, participation, complexity, etc.) are taken into account.

However, the features of forecasting require compliance with such rules as alternativeness, adequacy, probabilistic assessment of res-in.

Alternative forecasts - provides for the need to study almost all possible options for the future state of the object and ways to achieve it.

Adequacy - this requirement corresponds to the method of isp calculations and the features of the objects and processes under consideration. To assess the adequacy of the Spanish. Criterion of truth: To ist. = VP actual / VP plan . - the ratio of the actual output to the calculated ones.

Probabilistic estimate of res. calculation caused by the need to take into account the possible risk in assessing forecast indicators.

Expert forecasting methods:

1) direct: survey; analysis

2)methods with feedback: survey methods; methods of analysis (final model); methods of collective development (generation of ideas).

Expert Methods based on getting forecast information from qualified experts-experts.

Direct Methods imply a one-time, one-time contact between an expert and a forecaster. Survey Methods imply that the forecaster will present the expert with a questionnaire about the object or process of interest to us, and the expert gives answers to these questions. Based on the results of a survey of several experts, we will receive a forecast or initial data for its calculation. Analysis Methods this is an independent work of the expert on the forecast, as a result we get the forecast values.

Feedback Methods provide for repeated contacts, several meetings of the expert with the forecaster, since inaccuracies are possible, both in the question and in the answer. Survey Methods the difference is that after summarizing the results of the survey, the forecaster repeatedly comes to the expert with these results and asks to answer the same questionnaire, knowing the result of the generalized answer, and so on several times (no more than 3). Analysis Methods provides for independent work of the expert on the forecast, the result of the cat is specified several times based on the results of the previous stage. Collect method ideas these are methods of collective selection of the forecast by the forces of a selected group of specialists.

Expert forecasting methods have a number of advantages:

Little investment of time and money.

Possibility to receive long-term and extra-long-term forecasts.

The ability to get a forecast, even in the absence of initial data.

The ability to predict qualitative, revolutionary leaps in development.

The disadvantages include:

Low accuracy and poor validity of calculations.

Psychological dependence, herd feeling when making joint decisions.

The expert method is used most often in cases where it is necessary to quickly and inexpensively obtain an approximate forecast value, as well as in the absence of initial data, in cases where a long-term and ultra-long-term forecast is required.

factual methods.

Types of factographic methods:

Statistical: extrapolation, correlation and regression analysis

1. factor analysis

Analogies: historical , physical

Leading: NTP research , study NTInformation

Factual Methods are based on the use of predictive calculations of actual initial data characterizing the state of the object or process under consideration in the past and present.

Statistical Methods statistical and reporting data are used as initial data, and as methods of calculation it uses the methods of theory in statistics and applied mathematics. Extrapolation methods received the most distribution. They are based on the transfer of previously observed trends to the future and their results are reliable, only for the period of inertia (1/3 of the period). Methods of correlation-regression analysis began to be used since the 1970s of the last century (widespread use of computer technology in economic calculations). They are based on the use of functional relationships between two factors. Factor analysis so far, little has been used in predictive calculations. This is mainly due to the need to collect a large amount of initial data.

Analogy Methods are based on the use of data obtained during the operation of a previously implemented object (historical analogy) or specially built physical models.

Forward Methods materials of special special sources of information are used as initial data.

Scientific and technical progress is presented in samples, models, at various exhibitions, demonstrations. And they can be used to judge the development trends in the future.

NTInformation makes it possible to judge development trends based on the results of publication in specialized literature.

Advantages:

relative accuracy and validity of the results of predictive calculations;

the possibility of performing alternative, variant calculations.

Disadvantages:

the need for in large numbers initial data;

relatively high costs of money and time;

the need for modern computer science, software and staff qualifications;

the impossibility of taking into account qualitative, revolutionary leaps in development.

Therefore, factographic methods are usually used in cases where a more reasonable forecast result is needed, when an alternative calculation of development options is needed, and also when there are funds and time for these works.

Principles and rules for accounting for cash and accounting for credits and loans.

Cash enterprises are on bank accounts. From them, settlements are made with suppliers and buyers, with banks, financial authorities by non-cash transfers. Cash can be in the cash desk of the enterprise within the established limit.

Credits and loans- debts of the enterprise to other organizations. Loans include the amounts of shares of the labor collective issued and sold by the enterprise, bonds. Distinguish between short-term and long-term loans.

Credits taken from the Central Bank are provided by banks to other economic entities, but at a higher interest rate. With the help of the interest rate, the Central Bank thus has an indirect effect on the ratio of supply and demand in the capital market. An increase in the interest rate, i.e. "Rise" in the cost of credit, limits the amount of demand for borrowed resources and reduces the intention of firms to increase investment. A decrease in the rate “cheapens” credit, as a result of which the private sector (households, firms) has an increased desire for investment. This incentive is realized in the form of buying shares, production equipment or building new production buildings. This is the scheme of this mechanism. In real life, the influence of parameters is, of course, not always so simple.

The organization of cash accounting on the settlement account is carried out in accordance with the regulation of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation “On non-cash payments in the Russian Federation”, dated April 12, 2001 No. 2-P. To store free cash balances and carry out various settlement operations, the bank opens a current account for organizations, the number of which is affixed to all payment documents. The basis for opening a bank account are the following documents: 1.Application for opening an account. 2. Two copies of bank cards with sample signatures of the head of the organization and the chief accountant and their deputies and an imprint of the organization's seal. 3. Notarized copies of the charter of the organization, memorandum of association and registration certificate. 4. Certificates of registration in tax office , the Pension Fund and the Compulsory Medical Insurance Fund. If organizations are allowed to open several current accounts (this issue was resolved in different years in different ways), then they are required to submit information on all current accounts to the tax inspectorate on a quarterly basis. The receipt of cash from the cash desk of the organization to the bank is made out by an announcement for a cash contribution. This document is a written order of the organization to the bank to credit cash to its current account. It is written out in one copy in ink or paste. The bank issues a receipt for the money received. The basis for receiving funds from the current account to the cash desk is a cash receipt (not to be confused with a settlement check). The organization receives checkbooks from the bank upon written application. Each sheet of a checkbook consists of a spine and a check. The issued check is torn off and serves as the basis for receiving money in the bank, and the spine remains in the checkbook. In the bank of each organization, a personal account is opened, which reflects the movement of funds. The current account of the organization takes into account its own funds, therefore, from the standpoint of the organization, the current account is active. From the standpoint of the bank, the current account of the organization is passive, since it takes into account the attracted funds. The bank regularly provides the organization with an extract from the current account with supporting documents attached. The credit of the statement reflects the receipt of funds to the settlement account of the organization, the debit write-off. The bank statement is processed by machine, therefore it enters the organization in an encoded form. For decryption in the accounting department of the organization there is a layout of the statement. The form of execution of statements in different banks may differ due to different servicing equipment. After a thorough check of each amount of the statement, reconciliation with the primary documents, the accountant puts down the correspondence of the accounts, reflecting the debit entries of the statement on the credit of the current account, and the credit entries on the debit of the current account. Thus, the control functions of a bank statement are as follows: 1. Mutual control over the movement of funds in the current account is carried out. 2. An extract is a register of analytical accounting the only basis for maintaining a synthetic accounting of funds on a current account. For synthetic accounting of funds on the current account, the main cash active account 51 “Settlement accounts” is intended. The opening and closing balance reflects the availability of funds at the beginning and end of the reporting period. Turnovers on the debit of the account show the receipt, turnover on the loan write-off of funds from the current account. Primary accounting of funds on the current account is carried out according to primary documents (payment orders, claims, checks, letters of credit, etc.). Analytical accounting is carried out according to bank statements for debit and credit of the account. 51. The data of bank statements are reflected in ZhO No. 2, according to which synthetic accounting is carried out on the current account. In turn, ZhO No. 2 is the basis for filling out Ch. books and balance. When using computer technology, the resulting information is formed in the machinogram "Statement of cash and settlements". The receipt of funds to the current account is reflected according to Dt 51 in correspondence with the accounts:

Kt 62 - from buyers for products sold, work performed, services received in advance in advance; Kt 50 - depositing cash from the cash desk; Kt 76 - from debtors in repayment of debts; Kt 52, 55 - from foreign currency and special bank accounts; Kt 66, 67 - receipt of short-term and long-term credits and loans; Kt 91 - received fines, penalties, forfeits; proceeds from the sale of assets (other than finished products); Kt 90 - proceeds from the sale of finished products. The write-off of funds from the settlement account is reflected in Kt 51. Depending on the direction of use of funds, the following accounts are debited: Dt 68 - transfer of taxes to the budget; Dt 69 - transfer of the unified social tax; Dt 50 - cash to the cash desk for paying wages, for travel and business expenses; Dt 60 - to suppliers for acquired material assets, to contractors for work performed, services rendered, advances issued in advance payment; Dt 76 - to various creditors in the order of debt repayment;

Forecasting the development of regions and sectors of the economy in a market economy.

The purpose of regional forecasting and planning is to ensure the comprehensive and most effective socio-economic development of the region. Its purpose is to substantiate the directions and prospects for the development of the region, to provide information material for the development of economic and social policy and the adoption of appropriate management decisions. Its probabilistic nature is enhanced due to the high degree of uncertainty in a market economy. Regional planning includes a territorial section of the plan-forecast of the economic and social development of the country and comprehensive plans-forecasts for the socio-economic development of regions, districts, cities, etc. The central section of territorial plans-forecasts includes indicators characterizing the main parameters of the development of regions, in particular, the volume of production by industry, the volume of sales of paid services, etc.

However, to evaluate the performance of the regions, not only sectoral, but also general indicators, in particular, gross regional products (GRP), should be used. It characterizes the final results of economic activity of both branches of material production and the service sector. Created on the territory of the region GRP includes the income of all enterprises, organizations and the population received in both areas, as well as depreciation.

The substantiation of promising directions for improving the regional structure of the national economy is carried out on the basis of strategic goals and objectives, taking into account those that affect their implementation. factors. For this, an appropriate system of qualitative and quantitative characteristics is being developed. It reflects the features of the transition to market relations and integration Russia in world economy with the stabilization of its economic development: the formation and effective use of production potential, the impact of a new geopolitical position, the state of the environment, the need for fundamental organizational and market reforms, etc. The large heterogeneity of Russian regions, territorial differentiation of socio-economic parameters.

When forecasting and planning the development of regions, the same methods are mainly used as at the state level. To implement the planned priorities, structural changes, and a comprehensive solution of social and economic problems, the program-target method is primarily used, and targeted programs are being developed. An important role in ensuring the proportionality and balance of the regional economy is played by the balance method based on the system of territorial balances. These are the balances labor resources, financial resources, cash income and expenditures of the population, the main types of material resources. However, the most widely used is the normative method based on a system of economic and social norms and standards. Differentiated social norms and standards that characterize the provision of the population with basic types of material goods and services play a goal-orienting role in forecasting and planning the development of regions.

In modern conditions, the most acceptable are search forecasts, which determine the value of parameters for a specific period under changing conditions. The methods of expert assessments and logical modeling are widely used, which qualitatively characterize the development of the predicted phenomenon and proceed from the general patterns of economic development. The use of these methods is associated with the need to take into account the scenario of economic development and its consequences.

Forecast and planned calculations financial indicators are calculated using various methods. Most often - methods of extrapolation, normative, mathematical modeling (or matrix method), balance, expert assessments.

Extrapolation is used to calculate financial indicators with identification of their dynamics. The calculations are based on the indicators of the reporting period, adjusting them for a relatively stable rate of change in region.

The normative method is based on the use of established norms and standards in the social, industrial spheres.

Mathematical modeling (matrix method) is to build financial models simulating the course of real economic and social processes.

To harmonize directions of use financial resources with sources of their formation in region for the forecast period, linking all sections financial between plans, the balance method is used.

The method of expert assessments is built on the basis of proposals made and substantiated by competent specialists in certain branches of science, the national economy, regional economy.

Regional predictive developments are distinguished by a number of specific features. They are characterized by a relatively narrow range of predictable parameters, lower reliability and stability in comparison with economic plans (with a relatively broad implementation mechanism), more general indicators at the upper (federal) level and specific, detailed ones at the following (subjects Federations). In these forecasts reflects the specifics of regulation market economy- combination of the mechanism of self-regulation with the administrative-legal principles of regularity.

World practice shows the prevalence of opportunistic short-term regional development forecasts. However, there is increasing interest in identifying medium and long term economic growth to determine the most profitable areas capital investment and expanding global markets. In this case, they usually proceed from an assessment of the primary resources of production and social demand, especially solvent demand of the population (with it they begin forecast).

Projections for the future, in addition to factor analysis, can be based on the target (normative) or genetic ( extrapolation) methods. Market economy due to its instability, it makes it difficult to use the targeted approach, but interest in it remains both at the country and regional levels. For in a regulated market, national and regional goals become important, priorities and standards, the achievement of which is not only desirable, but often and urgently needed. Yet the "market" regional forecasts largely come down to identifying emerging and emerging trends development. A distinction must be made between long-term strategic goals and trends and immediate, requiring urgent action.

A systematic approach to regional forecasting primarily affects the relationship between the country and the region. AT forecast you can go deductive way, from the general to the particular, from the national economy to economy separate region (using mainly target method). In practice, in market conditions it is more convenient inductive way, from the region, its own premises and trends development (using mainly a genetic approach).

Methodical arsenal regional forecasts pretty wide. When substantiating the forecast indicators, we use those based on the modern theory of regional economy and integrated location of production traditional and latest methods of economic and technical-economic analysis. It should be noted that they can reflect not only purely quantitative, but also qualitative methodological techniques, indicate directions and methods for implementing regional strategy and tactics. This approach is very common in schemes for the development and deployment of productive forces, in other territorial forecasting developments, and in relevant methodological materials. A common generalizing method of forecasting is the development of future scenarios with variant elaboration on an alternative basis, using a probabilistic approach (i.e., taking into account the expected impact of certain factors). Some authors propose to include schemes (matrices) of interaction between economic, social, scientific and technical and other interests arising from the solution of a regional problem. These conceptual methodological approaches are formalized, implemented in quantitative methods, techniques calculations. They are used in various combinations, subdivided into four main groups:

expert assessment methods, including Delphi method- identification of matching estimates for autonomous survey experts;

Methods extrapolation(using the genetic approach);

Graphical method, method of mathematical functions; approach based on the relationship standard and correlations; method of geographical analogues; this is where the comparative evaluation method with the help of indices- territorial (base - average level for the country) and dynamic (base - level of the reporting period);

Normative method (specification of the target and scenario

approaches);

Balance and optimization methods, including economic and mathematical modeling.

Considering the specifics of modern market economy, its regulation by the state, it is recommended evaluation of results regional development to produce according to a three-criteria system of indicators - commercial, regional and interregional (national economic) efficiency. The effectiveness of any emerging sectoral component of the territorial complex can be identified from the results of the upcoming territorial shifts in the placement industries taking into account regional differences in the main indicators ( investment, wages, labor productivity, etc.)

Long term data forecast should form the basis of training forecasts and programs for the medium term, and the latter - as the basis of short-term forecasts and programs. The regional aspect of forecasting is reflected in government deepening programs economic reform, stabilization and economic development Russia.

Labor productivity is the most important indicator of the efficiency of crop production on reclaimed lands.

Labor productivity- the economic category characterizes the efficiency of the use of labor force. This is the ratio between working time and the amount of output produced. The more products are produced in unit-tsu slave. time, or the less time spent on the production of a unit of production, the higher this indicator.

Labor productivity- this is an indicator of the efficiency of the labor activity of employees, the ratio of the cost of the resources used to the cost of the products produced.

Labor productivity is determined by the ratio of the number of goods and services produced to labor costs. The development of society and the level of well-being of the population depend on labor productivity.

Labor productivity(P) is calculated by the formula

P = O / H

where O is the amount of work per unit of time; H is the number of employees.

An important role in solving the food problem is played by comprehensive targeted programs for the production of crop products. They have been developed for all major sectors - grain farming, fodder production, vegetable growing, potato growing, etc. Based on the use of highly efficient agricultural technology, fertilizers, plant protection products, new high-yielding varieties and mechanization, it is planned to ensure an increase in the gross grain harvest and increase labor productivity.

Comprehensive targeted programs have been developed to improve the efficiency of the use of reclaimed lands and water resources, productivity and soil protection, rational use of fertilizers; on the creation and development of production and the use of effective chemical and biological means of protecting plants and animals from pests, diseases, weeds, safe for humans and the environment, etc.

Distinguish between the productivity of living and total labor. The productivity of living labor is determined by the costs of working time in a given production, and the productivity of total (social) labor is determined by the costs of living and social labor. As production improves, labor productivity increases, but at the same time, the cost of living and social labor per unit of output decreases.

Labor productivity acts as an intensive factor in increasing the volume of production; the change in the mass of labor costs is an extensive factor.

The level of labor productivity is measured by the production of products per unit of time, and the labor intensity of manufacturing products.

Working out- this is the amount of production produced per unit of working time or per one medium-term worker per year (quarter, month). This is a direct value of labor productivity: it increases with an increase in labor productivity and decreases with its decrease.

Labor productivity- an economic category that characterizes the efficiency of the use of labor; it is the ratio between working time and the amount of output received. The more products are produced per unit of working time, i.e. the less time spent on the production of a unit of output, the higher this indicator. The essence of productivity growth is to save time.

Labor productivity in agriculture is characterized by a system of direct and indirect indicators. Direct costs are defined as the ratio of output to the amount of time spent. Indirect indicators are calculated taking into account the volume of work performed.

Labor productivity can also be expressed using the reciprocal value, which is characterized as the cost of working time per unit of output, i.e. labor intensity. Distinguish between the labor intensity of products (person * hour / c) and the labor intensity of the crop (person * hour / ha) The level of labor productivity for grain production

Increasing labor productivity is one of the most important factors in increasing the efficiency of agricultural production. The level of labor productivity is measured by the number of products produced per unit of working time. The more output produced per unit of labor time, or the less labor time spent on the production of a unit of output, the higher the productivity of labor.

To characterize labor productivity in agriculture, a system of indicators is used, which are divided into direct and inverse, complete and incomplete, indirect, natural and cost indicators.

A direct indicator of labor productivity is the output per unit of working time, i.e.

Fri=Sun:T ,

where Vp - the volume of products received;

T- labor costs (working time).

When determining labor productivity, products are taken into account in natural units and in value (monetary terms). Labor costs (working time) are expressed in man-days, man-hours, total and average annual employees.

Labor productivity can also be judged by the inverse ratio, which reflects the labor intensity of production, i.e. t=T:Vp.

Complete indicators of labor productivity reflect the efficiency of the total labor that creates a certain product (grain, potatoes, vegetables, etc.)

Indirect indicators of labor productivity are a combination of two factors of production, one of which is the labor force (for example, the area planted with potatoes per 1 field worker, etc.).

Natural indicators of labor productivity are determined for a particular industry (in grain production, vegetable growing, etc.). In this case, the products are taken into account in natural units (kg, q, t, pieces, etc.).

Comparable cost indicators of labor productivity are calculated for the industry or economy as a whole, and for this, heterogeneous products are converted into a comparable expression by means of prices.

Industrial and social infrastructure of the agro-industrial complex.

The infrastructure includes enterprises and organizations serving the agro-industrial complex. They provide the general conditions for the development of production and the life of people. According to its purpose, the infrastructure as an integral system is divided into production and social.

The production infrastructure includes: a system of material and technical services (electricity, gas, water supply, etc.); the system of material and technical supply and procurement of agricultural products, elevator, refrigeration and storage facilities; a system for bringing products to the consumer (distribution refrigerators, wholesale depots, etc.); transport and communications to serve the production needs of all sectors and enterprises of the agro-industrial complex.

The production structure of the agro-industrial complex ensures the interconnection of all phases of the reproduction process: production, distribution, exchange and consumption. The task of the production infrastructure is to ensure the normal functioning of agricultural enterprises, freeing them from functions that are unusual for them and concentrating their efforts on their core activities. The efficiency of the functioning of the production infrastructure is expressed in increasing production, maintaining quality and eliminating losses of agricultural products.

The social infrastructure is formed by: preschool institutions, education, education, and science bodies; healthcare, sports, environmental protection institutions; housing and communal services; retail and catering; public transport, communication; information service; occupational health and safety service. The task of social infrastructure is to ensure normal life, reproduction and consolidation of the workforce. The effectiveness of the functioning of the social infrastructure of the agro-industrial complex is expressed in an increase in labor productivity and the standard of living of its workers.

Consequently, industrial and social infrastructures serve all stages of agro-industrial production. Therefore, their role in increasing the level of intensification and efficiency of the agro-industrial complex is steadily increasing.

The agro-industrial complex is characterized by particular complexity. The ratio of industries included in it expresses its structure. It can be viewed from different angles.

The organizational and financial structure of the agro-industrial complex includes three areas.

Industries that produce means of production for all parts of the agro-industrial complex.

Agriculture engaged in the production of food and agricultural raw materials.

Industries that ensure the delivery of agricultural products to the consumer (harvesting, processing of agricultural products, their storage, transportation and sale). These include: food, meat, dairy, fish, large-scale flour-grinding, mixed fodder, as well as light industry working on agricultural raw materials, food products trade.

The reproductive and functional structure of the agro-industrial complex consists of five stages of agro-industrial production.

Production of means of production.

Agricultural production.

Production of food, consumer goods from agricultural raw materials.

Production and technical maintenance of all stages of the reproductive process.

Realization of the final product of the agro-industrial complex to the consumer.

The reproductive-functional structure of the agro-industrial complex shows the ratio of the main technological stages in the production of the final product of the agro-industrial complex and the role of each of them in the formation of its value. The main direction of improving the reproductive-functional structure of the agro-industrial complex is to optimize the proportion of development between individual and all stages of a single process of reproduction of the final product of the agro-industrial complex.

The territorial (regional) structure of the agro-industrial complex includes a set of relevant industries within a given territory, i.e. on the scale of the republic, region and district. Territorial agro-industrial complex of districts and regions are constituent elements of a single agro-industrial complex of the republic. Their main target function is to optimize the size of the production of agricultural and industrial products from agricultural raw materials of their own production for the needs of the local population and for sale and exchange with consumers of other regional agro-industrial complex. A distinctive feature of regional agro-industrial complex is that the specialization of agricultural production in a particular region, respectively, affects the specialization of their agro-industrial complex.

The product and raw material structure of the agro-industrial complex includes a food complex and a complex of non-food products. The food complex includes sub-complexes: grain products, potato products, sugar beet, canned fruits and vegetables, vodka and wine-making, meat, dairy, oil and fat. The complex of non-food products includes the following sub-complexes: fodder, textile, leather, fur, etc.

The main target function of food and raw complexes and subcomplexes is the maximum satisfaction of the needs of the population in the relevant types of products.

Travel, nodal and settlement costs on sections of the water supply network. Fundamentals of hydraulic network calculation.

The purpose of the hydraulic calculation of the network is to determine the most economically advantageous pipe diameters and pressure losses in the pipeline. Economically advantageous is such a diameter of pipes, at which the reduced costs for the construction and operation of the pipeline will be minimal. The minimum diameter of the pipeline combined with the fire-fighting one cannot be less than 100 mm. The network is divided into calculated sections with a length of no more than 800 m. The sections are delimited by nodes. Nodes are assigned at all points of the network where there are concentrated water flows, as well as at all points of intersection of the line and changes in pipe diameter, and are numbered (1, 2, 3, etc.). Assign sections and determine specific, travel, nodal and settlement costs. Specific water withdrawal, that is, withdrawal per second per 1 m of pipe length, is determined by the formula

qsp = Q0/Sl , where Q0 is the water consumption uniformly distributed along the length of the network, l/s; equal to the difference between the total estimated flow and concentrated; l is the length of the entire distribution network, m.

Travel water consumption

qpi \u003d qsp Li, where Li is the length of the section, m.

In addition to the travel water flow, each settlement section has a transit flow qtr, which feeds the underlying sections of the network. Consequently, the water flow at the beginning of any section of the pipeline is, qtr + qp, and at the end - qtr. Water consumption of a line supplying both travel and transit costs:

q = qtr+0.5qpi. (nine)

To simplify further calculations, the travel water costs of the plots are given to nodal . The nodal water flow is taken equal to half the sum of the travel water costs of the sections adjacent to this node:

According to the planned water flow rates for each section of the network, the most economically advantageous pipe diameters are determined

dek = 1.13 q account / Vek

where qwch is the estimated water flow at the site, m3/s; Vek - the speed of water movement in pipes, take no more than 2.5 m / s from the condition of preventing hydraulic shock and not less than 0.5 m / s from the condition of non-silting or non-growing of pipes.

1) On each section of the network, we determine the travel costs (the expense given to the sections along the way):

q put = q Wed * L uch [l/s]

2) Estimated flow rate is determined by the formula:

q i = q i -1 ±∆q

q i - estimated flow

q i -1 - previous consumption

∆q - correction flow

3) Nodal flow is determined by the formula (flow flowing from the node):

Q node = 0,5 ∑ q put + Q sosr

q put - travel expense, adjacent sections.

Q csr - flow concentrated in the node.

Hydraulic calculation of water supply networks is performed in order to determine the pressure loss in them and the diameters of the pipes of individual sections of the network. The head loss must be known to determine the height of the water tower and the required head of the pumping stations. The water supply network should be designed for cases of the highest water consumption and the moment of fire, which coincides in time with the hour of maximum water consumption.

When determining the pipe diameters of network sections, you need to know the estimated water flow rates for these sections, that is, the amount of water that will pass through them during the estimated periods of system operation.

Loss of pressure due to friction in pipes:

λ - coefficient of pressure loss due to friction along the length;

l is the length of the pipe section;

d - estimated inner diameter of the pipe;

V is the average speed of water movement;

q is the acceleration due to gravity.

where, A - resistivity, depending on the diameter of the pipe and the mode of water movement.

K - correction factor for non-squareness.

h = i*l, where i is the hydraulic slope.

Development of linear calendar plans and network schedules, adjusting them in terms of time.

Calendar planning is an integral element of the organization of construction production at all its stages and levels. The normal course of construction is possible only when it is thought out in advance in what sequence the work will be carried out, how many workers, machines, mechanisms and other resources will be required for each work. Underestimation of this entails inconsistency in the actions of performers, interruptions in their work, delays in terms and, of course, an increase in the cost of construction. To prevent such situations, a calendar plan is drawn up, which performs the function of a work schedule within the accepted duration of construction. Obviously, the changing situation at the construction site may require a significant adjustment of such a plan, however, in any situation, the construction manager must clearly understand what needs to be done in the coming days, weeks, months. The duration of construction is assigned, as a rule, according to the norms (SNiP 1.04.03-85 * Standards for the duration of construction ...) depending on the size and complexity of the facilities under construction, for example, the area of ​​hydro-reclamation systems, types and capacities of industrial enterprises, etc. In some cases, the duration of construction may be planned different from the normative (most often in the direction of tightening the deadlines), if required by the needs of production, special conditions, environmental programs, etc. For objects built in difficult natural conditions, an increase in the duration of construction is acceptable, but this must always be properly justified. In construction practice, simplified planning methods are often used, when, for example, only a list of works is compiled with the deadlines for their implementation without proper optimization. However, such planning is permissible only when solving small current tasks during construction. When planning large objects of work for the entire period of construction, careful work is needed to select the most appropriate sequence of construction and installation works, their duration, the number of participants, it is necessary to take into account many factors mentioned above. For these reasons, various forms of scheduling are used in construction, allowing in their own way to optimize the planned course of work, the possibility of maneuvers, etc. linear calendar charts network schedules In addition, depending on the breadth of the tasks to be solved, the required degree of detail of solutions, there are various types of schedules that are used at different levels of planning. When developing schedules in PIC and PPR, the best results are achieved when several options for the schedule are compiled, and the most effective one is selected. Types of calendar plans (schedules). There are four types of calendar schedules, depending on the breadth of the tasks to be solved and the type of documentation they are included in. All types of calendar schedules should be closely linked to each other. The consolidated calendar plan (schedule) in the POS determines the order of construction of objects, i.e. the start and end dates of each object, the duration of the preparatory period and the entire construction as a whole. For the preparatory period, as a rule, a separate calendar schedule is drawn up. Existing norms (SNiP 3.01.01-85 *) provide for the preparation of calendar plans in the POS in monetary form, i.e. in thousand rubles with distribution by quarters or years (for the preparatory period - by months). For complex facilities, especially water management and hydraulic engineering, additional summary graphs are compiled, oriented to physical volumes. When drawing up calendar plans for the construction of hydraulic and water facilities, it is necessary, as already noted, to carefully coordinate the progress of construction work with the timing of water flow in the river, the timing of blocking the channel and filling the reservoir. All these terms should be clearly reflected in the calendar plan. During the reconstruction of such facilities, minimal interruptions in the operation of the hydroelectric complex or hydraulic structure should be ensured. At the stage of development of the consolidated calendar plan, the issues of dividing construction into stages, launch complexes, and technological units are being resolved. Calendar plan signed by the chief engineer of the project and the customer (as the coordinating authority). The object calendar schedule in the PPR determines the sequence and timing of each type of work at a particular facility from the beginning of its construction to commissioning. Typically, such a plan is broken down by months or days, depending on the size and complexity of the object. The object calendar plan (schedule) is developed by the compiler of the PPR, i.e. by the general contractor or a specialized design organization engaged for this purpose. When developing calendar plans for the reconstruction or technical re-equipment of an industrial enterprise, it is necessary to coordinate all the terms with this enterprise. Working calendar schedules are usually drawn up by the production and technical department of a construction organization, less often by line personnel during the construction and installation period. Such schedules are developed not for a week, a month, several months. Weekly charts are most widely used. Work schedules are an element of operational planning, which must be carried out continuously throughout the entire construction period. The purpose of the work schedules, on the one hand, is to detail the object calendar plan and, on the other hand, to respond in a timely manner to all kinds of changes in the situation at the construction site. Work schedules are the most common type of scheduling. As a rule, they are compiled very quickly and often have a simplified form, i.e., as practice shows, they are not always properly optimized. Nevertheless, they usually take into account the actual situation at the construction site better than others, since they are compiled by persons directly involved in this construction. This is especially true for taking into account weather conditions, the specifics of the interaction of subcontractors, the implementation of various rationalization proposals, i.e. factors that are difficult to predict in advance. Hourly (minute) charts in technological charts and labor process charts are compiled by the developers of these charts. Such schedules are usually carefully thought out, optimized, but they are focused only on typical (most likely) operating conditions. In specific situations, they may require significant adjustments. Simplified forms of scheduling. With short-term planning, as already noted, in construction practice a simplified form of scheduling is often used in the form of a list of works with deadlines for their implementation. This form is not visual and is not suitable for optimization, but when solving current problems for the coming days or weeks, it is acceptable due to the simplicity and speed of its compilation. Usually this is the result of an agreement on the timing of work between the performers, which is recorded in the form of a protocol of a technical meeting, an order from the general contractor, or another current document. The simplified form should also include construction planning in cash. In this case, some optimization is possible, but it solves such issues only in an extremely generalized form, since it relates primarily to construction financing. A calendar plan in terms of money is usually drawn up for especially large amounts of work, when a whole object or complex of objects acts as an element of planning. Such plans are typical, for example, for PIC. Line calendar charts A linear calendar chart (Ganga chart) is a table of "work (objects) - time", in which the duration of work is depicted as horizontal line segments. Such a schedule provides opportunities for optimizing construction and installation works according to a wide variety of criteria, including the uniformity of the use of labor, mechanisms, building materials, etc. The advantage of line charts is also their clarity and simplicity. The development of such a schedule includes the following steps: drawing up a list of works for which a schedule is being made determining their production methods and volumes determining the labor intensity of each type of work by calculating based on existing time standards, aggregated standards or local experience data drawing up the original version of the schedule, i.e. preliminary determination of the duration and calendar deadlines for the execution of each work with the display of these terms on the schedule optimization of the calendar schedule, i.e. ensuring a uniform need for resources, primarily in the labor force), ensuring the timely completion of construction, etc., establishing the final calendar dates for work and the number of performers. The results of each stage of development, the calendar plan, must be carefully verified, because errors, as a rule, are not compensated for at subsequent stages. For example, if at the first stage the volume of any work is estimated incorrectly, its duration and deadlines will be incorrect, and the optimization will be imaginary. When determining the labor intensity of work, it is necessary to pay special attention to the reality of the calculations carried out, taking into account specific working conditions. The latter may differ significantly from those accepted in the norms, so the compiler of the calendar plan must be well acquainted with the actual conditions of construction. The main disadvantage of linear graphs is the difficulty of their adjustment in case of violations of the initial terms of work or changes in the conditions for their implementation. These shortcomings are eliminated with another form of scheduling - network charts. network charts The network graph is based on the use of another mathematical model - a graph. Graphs (obsolete synonyms: network, maze, map, etc.) are called by mathematicians "a set of vertices and a set of ordered or unordered pairs of vertices." Speaking in a more familiar (but less precise) language for an engineer, a graph is a set of circles (rectangles, triangles, etc.) connected by directed or non-directed segments. In this case, the circles themselves (or other figures used) according to the terminology of graph theory will be called "vertices", and the non-directed segments connecting them - "edges", directed (arrows) - "arcs". If all the segments are directed, the graph is called directed; if all segments are undirected, the graph is called undirected. The most common type of work network diagram is a system of circles and directed segments (arrows) connecting them, where the arrows represent the work itself, and the circles at their ends ("events") - the beginning or end of these works.

Markets. Their classification and characteristics.

The concept of the market is ambiguous. For the convenience of research, economists divided the markets into classes according to certain criteria, that is, signs. Below are the most used signs of market classification and a brief description of these markets.

By the role of market entities

Distinguish seller's market and buyer's market. On the seller's market there is a situation of "deficit", in which the amount of demand of buyers for goods presented on the market exceeds the amount of supply of these goods from the side of the seller. Therefore, prices in the seller's market are usually high, as is the competition between buyers for the right to buy goods. Buyer's Market characterized by a situation of "excess", in which the supply of goods exceeds the demand for them. In such a market, the rule of the market is observed: "The buyer is always right!" Therefore, in the buyer's market, prices are usually low, and competition between sellers for the "votes" of buyers is high.

Currently, many tools have been developed to analyze their own performance. These indicators include labor productivity. Its calculation formula is simple. And the result will show how effective the work of the staff is.

Performance

Labor productivity is an indicator of labor efficiency. It determines the result of labor in quantitative terms at a certain point in time.

The following indicators speak about labor productivity:

• production;
• laboriousness;
• labor productivity index.

These indicators will reveal how many units of products can be sold (produced) in the company. Based on these data, it is possible to generate a production forecast, build a sales plan.

How to define output?

Output is the total amount of work performed by one employee. This indicator can measure the results of the sale of goods, services, production.
You can calculate the production rate by two values:

• the average number of employees participating in manufacturing process;
• time spent creating the product.

In the first variant, the calculation of production will be as follows: V=V/N

B - production;

V - the amount of work performed;

N is the average number of specialists directly involved in production.

The second option (based on the time spent): B = V / t

B - production;

V - volume of released works (actual release of finished products);

t - actual labor costs per unit of time of interest.

How to define labor intensity?

Labor intensity - the amount of time spent by one worker on the production of one unit of service (goods). That is, it is the inverse coefficient in relation to production.

T - labor intensity;

N is the number (average) of specialists;

You can calculate the indicator per worker. Then the value of N must be equal to one.

T - labor intensity based on the time spent;

t - actual labor costs per unit of time of interest;

V - the volume of the released product (the result of work or service).

Labor productivity. Calculation formula

Several formulas have been developed for calculating labor productivity. When calculating according to any formulas, it is necessary to take into account that:

• the volume of manufactured products should be calculated in units of manufactured goods;
• only those personnel who are directly involved in production are taken into account (managers, lawyers, etc. are not taken into account).

The calculation of labor productivity, taking into account the factors of labor intensity and output, can be made using the formulas:

In terms of labor intensity: PT \u003d (V * (1 - Kp)) / (T1 * H)

PT - labor productivity;

T is the labor intensity of one worker;

Kp - downtime ratio;

V is the volume of output;

N is the average number of personnel.

Taking into account the production: PT \u003d [(In - Wb) / Wb] * 100%

PT - percentage performance indicator;

In - product development in the reporting period;

Wb - production output in the base period.

Labor productivity. Balance formula

To calculate labor productivity indicators, you can use the balance sheet data of the organization. For example, an indicator of the volume of production.

Balance calculation formula: PT = (V * (1 - K p)) / (T * N)

V - the volume of manufactured products according to the balance sheet (reflected in line 2130);

Kp - downtime, coefficient;

T - labor costs of one employee;

N is the average number of employees.

The effectiveness of the use of personnel in the work of the company is characterized by indicators of labor productivity.

Labor productivity is economic category, which expresses the degree of expediency and fruitfulness of the activities of the employees of the enterprise for the production of spiritual and material benefits.

Labor productivity is determined by the amount of time that an employee spends on producing a unit of output (or performing certain work) or the quantity of products (volume of work) that is produced by an employee for a certain unit of time (shift, hour, year, quarter).

Labor productivity is determined through a system of indicators of labor intensity and output.

Working out

Output (W) - the actual productivity of labor, in the economy is understood as the quotient of dividing the volume of work performed (output) by the number of employees (labor costs).

W = q / T

Labor intensity

Labor intensity (t) is determined by dividing labor costs (number of employees) by the amount of work (output). Labor intensity indicators characterize labor costs per unit of output (work performed), and output indicators characterize the volume of work performed (product received) per unit of headcount.

t = T / q

Where q is the volume of manufactured products, T is the cost of working time.

Basic coefficients of labor productivity are calculated both separately and on average for the organization.

Production of products and production at individual work sites and places involved in the production of products are always determined in kind, in the volume of produced units of products.

For example, the volume of certificates issued on average by a telephone operator in help desk GTS per hour, the volume of written correspondence sorted by one sorter per hour. At individual workplaces, the volume of output, as a rule, is normalized - each employee is assigned a separate planned task or a specific output rate.

It is rather difficult to characterize the labor productivity of maintenance workers of various means of communication in terms of production indicators, since they are engaged in the adjustment and elimination of damage, and their work activity often involves only staying at their workplace. Therefore, on this stage it is important to measure the indicators of labor intensity, that is, the amount of time spent, for example, on eliminating communication interference.

The volume of labor productivity in a communications organization is determined by the indicator of the average amount of output. However, in a communications company it is impossible to know the output in physical terms as a whole, since the company carries out various different types services and works, therefore, the output is determined in monetary terms - the total volume of the company's products sold will be displayed by the revenue received, therefore, when calculating labor productivity, the sales revenue indicator is generally used.

The formula for calculating labor productivity is as follows:

PT = O / H

Where O is the amount of work per unit of time, PT is labor productivity and H is the number of employees.

• Before carrying out calculations, determine the indicators by which the calculation will be carried out: production output or labor intensity.
• Choose the method by which the volume of labor productivity will be calculated: labor, natural or cost. The natural method is used to calculate the exact amount of output and output produced (in quantity, mass, cubic meters or square meters).

Examples of calculating labor productivity

Consider the following examples:

1. The company, which employs 50 workers, produced 50,000 nails in a month. The output of one worker will be: 1000 pieces of nails / person (50,000 divided by 50).
2. An enterprise with 50 workers produces about 30,000 window frames. Under such conditions, the output will be calculated as follows: 30,000/50 = 600 window frames (one worker produces per week).

At labor methodology the quantity of products is determined in standard hours, it is not suitable for medium or small businesses, it is used mainly big companies. For example, a turner grinds 0.5 bushings per minute of his shift. In the cost methodology, value expressions are taken as the basis.

Let's give an example: two factories produce products worth 1,000,000 rubles in one day. One factory employs 10 people, the other 40. Calculation: 1,000,000/50 = 20,000 rubles (one factory employee produces products for this amount).

When making calculations, take into account the fact that the volume of labor productivity is a variable value, which depends not only on employees, but also on the head (owner) of the company: what better conditions labor in the enterprise, the higher and more reliable will be the motivation of employees and their productivity.

It is very important to correctly calculate labor productivity for an enterprise, since the work schedule and staffing employees, as well as the cost of products (services), the costs of its production and the final profit of the company.

Labor productivity in accounting

Not only an enterprise economist, but also an accountant can calculate labor productivity. The indicator of labor productivity can also be determined by indirect indicators reflected in the balance sheet. To do this, you must use the following formula:

PT \u003d Vvr / PE

Where PE is the number of personnel, PT is labor productivity, Vvr is the amount of work performed, which is indicated in the balance sheet.

An increase in labor productivity in 100% of cases means a reduction in costs and an increase in the profitability of the company, and also indicates that the company has a competent leader. Productivity growth should not be short-term and sudden, for example, due to a sharp increase in the workload of employees, but gradual and smooth. Labor productivity is directly related to the cost of goods (products, services) - the higher the productivity, the lower the cost and vice versa.

Factors affecting labor productivity

Labor productivity indicators change under the influence of various factors, which may be internal or external to the company.

The following can be distinguished external factors :

• Political: by decision of the state, capital is accumulated in the hands of a certain circle of high-ranking officials, which leads to a mass unwillingness of the people to work.
• Natural: in difficult climatic conditions (heat, fog, humidity, cold), the overall productivity of labor is significantly reduced.
• General economic: tax and credit policy, systems of quotas and licenses, freedom of entrepreneurial activity.

To internal factors relate:

• Application of modern achievements of science and technology in production.
• Change in the structure and volume of production.
• Improving the organization and stimulation of the work of employees.
• Modernization of the organization of production and management in the company.

How to increase labor productivity

To improve performance, if we are talking about the production of products, the management of the enterprise needs to:

• Implement automated lines.
• Don't be sorry financial resources to a new software and training their employees to use the latest technologies.
• Optimize logistics, because if an employee spends most of his working time on downtime and waiting, then the efficiency of his work will be low.

plays an important role and right motivation employees - an employee who has four shifts per week and no additional motivation will produce fewer parts per hour than an employee who has two shifts and additional bonuses from the company:

• Additional health insurance policy.
• Holiday awards.
• Discounted pool membership.

Labor productivity is very difficult to calculate in the activities of managers who are not involved in direct sales or employees who are engaged in the service, maintenance or recruiting industry. To make the work of such employees more efficient, it is necessary to use methods of non-material motivation. For example:

• Attending free trainings for employees effective communications and team building.
• Praise and recognition of work.
• Contests, competitions.
• Motivating meetings.
• Discounts for services.
• Congratulations on significant dates.
• Informing other employees about the achievements of their colleagues.
• Incentive trips.

Video: how to calculate labor productivity

In order to analyze and predict the productivity of the enterprise, the following indicators are used:

• Private: display the time spent on the production of a unit of output or show how many goods of a particular type in physical terms are produced in a certain unit of time.
• Generalizing: average daily, average annual, average hourly production of products (goods) per employee. These indicators are calculated by dividing the volume of production in rubles or standard hours by the total number of employees or all industrial and production personnel of the company.
• Auxiliary: give an idea of ​​the employee's time spent on performing a unit of any work or on the total amount of work carried out per unit of time.

Labor productivity can be defined as the main indicator of its effectiveness. In the general case, this is the amount of labor (of a specific product) that is received (produced) per unit of time (hour, day, year). This indicator is calculated both for specific enterprises, departments or employees, and at the level of industries, the economy of the state and the world as a whole.

It is determined on the basis of 2 approaches:

1. Through product development
2. Through hard work.

Through the production

Under the development understand an indicator that characterizes the total amount of work in terms of a particular employee, department or the entire enterprise. Output can be calculated both directly through the number of goods produced / services rendered, and through the sale of these goods.

There are 2 ways to calculate yield:

1. The average number of employees who are directly involved in the production/sale of goods/services.
2. The time it takes to produce a unit of a good/service.

If 1 approach is taken as the basis, the formula is as follows:

B =V/ N

AT is the performance indicator V- the amount of work actually done, N- the average number of employees involved in production.

Expert opinion

Sobolev Dmitry

For example, in trading company busy selling services. In just 1 month, 50 services were sold, the number of employees is constant - 10 sales managers. Therefore, the output can be calculated as follows: 50/10 = 5.

If approach 2 is taken as the basis, then the time spent is taken into account t so the following formula is used:

B =V/ t

Expert opinion

Sobolev Dmitry

Lawyer for administrative offenses, site expert

For example, if the same sales volume is calculated for 1 day, then 50/21 = 2.38 sales per day (assuming there are 21 working days in a month). That is, this indicator expresses the productivity of labor in a given trading company.

Through the complexity

This is the inverse of revenue. It is determined by the time spent by an employee (department, the whole company) to create a unit of output (goods or services):

T = N/ V

T is an indicator of labor intensity, N is the average number of employees, and V is the volume of their products.

For example, it takes 10 people to produce 1 unit of output. Then the labor intensity is 10/1 = 10. Therefore, the more employees are needed to produce a unit, the greater the labor intensity of this process. At the same time, the unit can be understood as both real values ​​and conditional ones. For example, for 1 sale, the efforts of a manager, a lawyer and an office manager are required. Hence, the complexity of the process can be estimated as 3.

Another version of the formula is also valid, when the complexity is determined through the time spent t:

T =t/ V

For example, if a baker can bake 100 units of bakery products in 1 hour of work, then the labor intensity of this process can be defined as 1/100. Obviously, the smaller the volume of products produced at the same time (or in terms of 1 person), the greater the complexity of the process.

4 Ways to Determine Labor Productivity

Entrepreneurs may be interested different ways determining performance, since to maintain the indicator at a high level, it is necessary to spend several resources at once:

• the labor of hired workers;
• time;
• cash;
• material resources for production.

Accordingly, the indicator itself can be expressed through different types of resources. For example, in the same case, productivity may be satisfactory in terms of labor resources spent, but not satisfactory in terms of time spent, as well as income received.

cost method

This approach is most often used because the entrepreneur is primarily interested in knowing how much money his company “produces”. To determine the performance of the PT from this point of view, the following formula is used:

Fri =V/ N

Under V refers to the total volume of production, and it is calculated not in units, but in cash(rubles or foreign currency); under N is in the form of the number of employees.

For example, if in 1 month a company produces products worth 500 thousand rubles, and 10 people are constantly involved in production or in the process of activity, then the productivity will be 500,000/10 \u003d 50,000 rubles / person (i.e. 1 employee “produces” 50,000 rubles ).

Fri =V/ t

In this example, we are talking about 1 month; since it has 21 working days, then 500000/21 \u003d 23809. In terms of hours (8-hour day) we get: 500000 / (21 * 8) \u003d 2976 rubles / hour.

Suppose the entrepreneur decides to hire 2 more employees, expecting a corresponding increase in PT. In fact, after the calculations, it turns out that V production has grown only to 550 thousand rubles, i.e. 1 person now accounts for 550,000/12 = 45,833 rubles / person. This is less than it was before (50,000 rubles / person). Therefore, such a measure reduces productivity and at the same time increases costs (wages, taxes, social benefits). The reasons should be sought in the inefficiency of the labor of specific employees or in the production system, the organization of labor as a whole.

labor method

In this case, the PT can be determined in terms of the hours spent (by one person) to produce a unit of output:

Fri =V/ N

Here, the volume of production V is expressed in terms of the total amount of goods/services produced/provided per unit of time.

Expert opinion

Sobolev Dmitry

Lawyer for administrative offenses, site expert

For example, in 1 hour, a fast food chain produces 100 hot dogs. This requires the efforts of 4 workers. Then 100/4 = 25 pieces/person. Suppose the entrepreneur hired 1 more person. After the next calculations, it turned out that now employees produce 150 hot dogs per hour. This means that the PT has grown: 150/5 = 30 units / person. Therefore, such a measure is justified (the increase may be due to more effective interaction between employees).

natural method

A similar method can be used if workers produce homogeneous products that are easy to measure - in pieces, measures of mass, volume, etc. The formula is the same:

Fri =V/ N

However, now under V This refers to the volume of production in pieces, and not in hours or rubles. In the example described, you can calculate the total number of hot dogs per day (let's say the shift lasts 10 hours). If an average of 100 pieces are produced per hour, we get 1000 units of production. Then 1000/4 = 250 pieces/person. Thus, in total, 1 person produces 250 units per day. And after attracting 1 more employee, they began to produce 1500 units, i.e. 1500/5 = 300 units. PT increased by 20%, the measure is justified.