“Even in a prosperous society, the unequal position of people remains an important enduring phenomenon ... Of course, these differences are no longer based on direct violence and legislative norms on which the system of privileges was kept in a caste or estate society. However, apart from the coarser divisions of property and income, prestige and power, our society is characterized by many rank differences - so subtle and at the same time so deeply rooted that claims of the disappearance of all forms of inequality as a result of leveling processes can be perceived as but to say the least, skeptical.

Dahrendorf R.

Inequality is an essential element of any society. We are talking about social inequality, which is reproduced in fairly stable forms, as a reflection of the political, economic, cultural and normative structure of society. Anthropological research suggests that inequality already existed in primitive societies and was determined by strength, dexterity, courage, religious awareness, etc. Inequality is generated even by natural differences between people, but it manifests itself most deeply as a consequence of social factors. As a result, some individuals, groups or layers have more opportunities or resources (financial, power, etc.) than others. The existence of social inequality can be taken as an axiom. However, the explanation of its nature, the foundations of historical evolution, the relationship of specific forms remains one of key issues any sociological research.

Inequality in modern sociological theory.

There are various definitions of inequality: “Inequality is the conditions under which people have unequal access to social goods such as money, power and prestige”; “Social inequality is a specific form of social differentiation, in which individual individuals, social boundaries, strata, classes are at different levels of the vertical social hierarchy, have unequal life chances and opportunities to meet needs”; "In the very general view inequality means that people live in conditions in which they have unequal access to limited resources of material and spiritual consumption. All these definitions reflect different aspects of social inequality.

In sociology, one of the first explanations of inequality was given by E. Durkheim in his work "On the division of social labor." The author's conclusion is that different kinds activities are valued differently in society. Accordingly, they form a certain hierarchy. In addition, people themselves have varying degrees of talent, skill, etc. Society must see to it that the most able and competent perform the most important functions; in turn, this determines various rewards.

Within the framework of structural functionalism, the concept of stratification was developed by American sociologists K. Davis and W. Moore. At the same time, inequality acts as a natural way of self-regulation and survival of society, its organization, as an incentive to advance. Thus, society is not just differentiated, but hierarchically structured, according to the principle "above" - ​​"below".

Analysis of the vertical stratification of society is reflected in the theory of stratification. The very concept of "stratification" came to sociology from geology, where "stratum" means a geological layer. This concept quite accurately conveys the content of social differentiation, when social groups line up in social space in a hierarchically organized vertically sequential row according to some dimension of inequality.

The criteria for organizing inequality can be different. This serves as the basis for a multidimensional approach to the study social stratification in Western sociology. As is known, for many years we have been dominated by class theory, based on a one-dimensional approach to the analysis of social differentiation, where the defining criterion is the attitude to property, to the means of production. Hence, at various stages of the development of society, the main classes of the haves and have-nots were distinguished: slaves and slave owners, peasants and feudal lords, proletarians and bourgeois.

However, "closeness" to the economy could not explain the diversity and volume that in real life characterize the social differentiation of society. M. Weber expands the range of criteria, including the attitude to power and social prestige, which allows one to take one or another place on the social ladder in accordance with the status occupied.

P. A. Sorokin singles out different forms of social differentiation. Property inequality gives rise to economic differentiation, inequality in the possession of power testifies to political differentiation, division according to the type of activity, which differs in the level of prestige, gives reason to speak of professional differentiation.

In modern Western sociology, on the basis of a multidimensional approach, different dimensions of stratification are distinguished: on the basis of gender, age, race, property status, education, etc.

However, social differentiation is only one component of social stratification. Another, no less important, is social evaluation.

The American sociologist T. Parsons emphasized that social hierarchy is determined by the cultural standards and values ​​that prevail in society. In accordance with this, in different societies, with the change of eras, the criteria that determine the status of an individual or group have changed.

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

……………………………………

Department UP-1

Sociology homework

"SOCIAL INEQUALITY, ITS CAUSES AND TYPES"

Student: ……………………

080504 - State and municipal administration

1 course, gr. UP-1

Checked:

……………………….

Introduction ……………………………………………………………………..….. 3

1. The essence of social inequality…………………………………..………..4

2. Causes of social inequality…………………………………………...5

3. Modern types of inequality ………………………………………..……….8

Conclusion……………………………………………………………...………..11

References……………………………………………………………..12

INTRODUCTION

The formation of the "New Russia" markedly changed social relations, social institutions, gave rise to new forms of social differentiation and inequality.

Discussions about social inequality, its content and the criteria for its emergence have a long history. The problem of social inequality, taking into account the values ​​of traditional society, appears in the works of Aristotle, Plato, Tacitus.

In my opinion, in modern world Indicators characterizing social inequality must be continuously monitored and evaluated. This is necessary for one reason - the degree of social inequality may exceed some acceptable limits. Exceeding the permissible degree of inequality leads to a large difference in the standard of living of certain status groups of society, which can be regarded as discrimination, infringement of certain groups of the population. This fact often leads to the emergence of social tension in society, exacerbates social conflicts.

The object of my research is society, and the subject is the study of inequality.

Since my essay is devoted to the problem of inequality in society, my task is to determine the essence and causes of social inequality, as well as to consider the types of social inequality.

1. THE ESSENCE OF SOCIAL INEQUALITY

To begin with, I would like to define what the term “inequality” means? In general terms, inequality means that people live in conditions in which they have unequal access to material and spiritual consumption resources. And the inequality between groups of people is characterized by the concept of "social stratification".

When considering the problem of social inequality, it is fair to proceed from the theory of socio-economic heterogeneity of labor. It is the socio-economic heterogeneity of labor that is the consequence and cause of the appropriation by some people of power, property, prestige and the absence of all these signs of “advancement” in the social hierarchy of others. Each of the groups develops and relies on its own values ​​and norms, and if they are placed according to a hierarchical principle, then they are social strata.

In social stratification there is a tendency to inherit positions. The operation of the principle of inheritance of positions leads to the fact that not all capable and educated individuals have equal chances to occupy positions of power, high principles, and well-paid positions. There are two selection mechanisms at work here: unequal access to truly high-quality education; unequal opportunities for obtaining positions by equally trained individuals.

I would like to note that the inequality of the position of different groups of people can be traced throughout the history of civilization. Even in a primitive society, age and sex, combined with physical strength, were an important criterion for stratification.

2. CAUSES OF SOCIAL INEQUALITY

The basis of the reason for the unequal position of people in society, some representatives of sociological thought, consider the social division of labor. However, scientists explain in different ways the ensuing consequences and, especially, the reasons for the reproduction of inequality.

Herbert Spencer believes that the source of inequality is conquest. Thus, the ruling class - the winners, and the lower class - the vanquished. Prisoners of war become slaves, free farmers become serfs. On the other hand, frequent or constant wars lead to the deliberate dominance of those who function in the state and military sphere. Thus, the law of natural selection operates: the stronger dominate and occupy a privileged position, while the weak obey them and are on the lower rungs of the social ladder.

The development of the sociology of inequality, the idea of ​​evolution and the law of natural selection had a significant impact. One of the directions of evolutionism is social Darwinism. Common to all representatives of this trend was the recognition that the same struggle is going on between human societies as between biological organisms.

Ludwig Gumplovich is convinced that the cause of any social movement is economic motives. The means for realizing these interests are violence and coercion. States arise as a result of military clashes between races. The winners become the elite (the ruling class), while the losers become the masses.

William Sumner is the most influential social Darwinist. He uniquely interpreted in his writings the ideas of Protestant ethics and the principle of natural selection. He most clearly manifested the ideology of social Darwinism in his writings of the 70s. Since evolution does not occur at the will of people, it is therefore stupid and absurd to design models of society, Sumner believed. The struggle for existence and survival is a natural law of nature that does not need to be changed. And capitalism is the only healthy system, the rich are a product of natural selection.

Karl Marx believed that initially the division of labor does not lead to the subordination of some people to others, but, being a factor in the mastery of natural resources, causes professional specialization. But the complication of the production process contributes to the division of labor into physical and mental. This division historically preceded the formation of private property and classes. With their appearance, certain areas, types and functions of activity are assigned to the corresponding classes. Since then, each class has been engaged in the kind of activity intended for it, owns or does not own property, and is located on different rungs of the ladder of social positions. The causes of inequality lie in the system of production, in a different relationship to the means of production, which allows those who own property not only to exploit those who do not have it, but also to dominate them. To eliminate inequality, the expropriation of private property and its nationalization is necessary.

Subsequently, within the framework of the conflict theory, R. Dahrendorf, R. Michels, C.R. Mills et al. began to view inequality as the result of the conditions under which people who control such social values ​​as wealth and power derive benefits and advantages for themselves. In any case, social stratification is seen as a condition of social tension and conflict.

Proponents of structural functionalism, following Emile Durkheim, identify two causes of social inequality

Hierarchy of activities Degree of talent

in a society of individuals

Decisive for the formation of modern ideas about the essence, forms and functions of social inequality, along with Marx, was Max Weber (1864 - 1920) - a classic of world sociological theory. The ideological basis of Weber's views is that the individual is the subject of social action.

In contrast to Marx, Weber, in addition to the economic aspect of stratification, took into account such aspects as power and prestige. Weber viewed property, power, and prestige as three separate, interacting factors that underlie hierarchies in any society. Differences in ownership give rise to economic classes; differences of power give rise to political parties, and differences of prestige give rise to status groupings or strata. From here he formulated his idea of ​​"three autonomous dimensions of stratification." He emphasized that "classes", "status groups" and "parties" are phenomena related to the distribution of power within the community.

Weber's main contradiction with Marx is that, according to Weber, a class cannot be the subject of action, since it is not a community. In contrast to Marx, Weber associated the concept of class only with capitalist society, where the market is the most important regulator of relations. Through it, people satisfy their needs for material goods and services.

However, in the market people occupy different positions or are in different “class situations”. Here everyone sells and buys. Some sell goods, services; others - the labor force. The difference here is that some people own property and others don't. Weber does not have a clear class structure of capitalist society, so different interpreters of his work give inconsistent lists of classes.

Taking into account his methodological principles and summarizing his historical, economic and sociological works, one can reconstruct Weber's typology of classes under capitalism as follows:

Working class dispossessed. It offers on the market

their services and differentiated by skill level.

petty bourgeoisie- a class of small businessmen and merchants.

Dispossessed White Collar Workers: technical specialists and intelligentsia.

Administrators and managers.

Owners who also strive through education for the advantages possessed by intellectuals.

5.1 Owner class, i.e. those who receive rent from land ownership,

mines, etc.

5.2 “Commercial class”, i.e. entrepreneurs.

3. MODERN INEQUALITIES

3.1. Poverty as a type of inequality (consider the period when changes in this area were especially noticeable)

The phenomenon of poverty became the subject of research in modern Russian sociology in the early 1990s. During the Soviet period, the concept of poverty in relation to Soviet people was not used in domestic science. In the socio-economic literature, the category of low income received official recognition, which was revealed within the framework of the theory of welfare and socialist distribution.

Today, an important characteristic of society is its social polarization, stratification into rich and poor. In 1994 per capita cash ratio income of 10% of the richest and 10% of the poorest Russians was 1:9, and already in the first quarter of 1995 - almost 1:15. However, these figures do not take into account those 5% of the super-rich population, for which statistics do not have data.

According to official statistics, for 1993-1996. number of unemployed increased from 3.6 million to 6.5 million (including those officially registered with the state employment service - from 577.7 thousand people to 2506 thousand).

Working-age population amounted to 83,767 thousand in 1994, 84,059 thousand in 1995, 84,209 thousand in 1996, 84,337 thousand in 1997, and 84,781 thousand in 1998. human.

Economically active population in 1994 it was 73,962.4 thousand, in 1995 - 72,871.9 thousand, in 1996 - 73,230.0 thousand, in 1997 - 72,819 thousand people.

Population with cash incomes below the subsistence level is 30.7 million or 20.8% of the population of the Russian Federation. AT

In 1997, the 10% of the wealthiest population accounted for 31.7% of cash income, while the share of the 10% of the poorest population accounted for only 2.4%, i.e. 13.2 times less.

According to official statistics, the number of unemployed in 1994 was 5478.0 thousand, in 1995 - 6431.0 thousand, in 1996 - 7280.0 thousand, in 1997 - 8180.3 thousand .

3.2.Deprivation as a kind of inequality.

Deprivation should be understood as any condition that generates or can generate in an individual or group a sense of their own deprivation in comparison with other individuals (or groups). Five types of deprivation can be distinguished.

Economic deprivation.

It stems from the uneven distribution of income in society and the limited satisfaction of the needs of some individuals and groups. The degree of economic deprivation is assessed according to objective and subjective criteria. An individual who, according to objective criteria, is economically quite prosperous and even enjoys privileges, may, nevertheless, experience a subjective feeling of deprivation. For the emergence of religious movements, the subjective feeling of deprivation is the most important factor.

Social deprivation.

It is explained by the tendency of society to evaluate the qualities and abilities of some individuals and groups higher than others, expressing this assessment in the distribution of such social rewards as prestige, power, high status in society and the corresponding opportunities for participation in social life.

Ethical deprivation.

It is associated with a value conflict that arises when the ideals of individual individuals or groups do not coincide with the ideals of society. Often the value conflict arises due to the presence of contradictions in the social organization. Such conflicts between society and intellectuals are known.

Mental deprivation.

It arises as a result of the formation of a value vacuum in an individual or group - the absence of a significant system of values, in accordance with which they could build their lives. The usual reaction to mental deprivation is the search for new values, new faith, meaning and purpose of existence. Mental deprivation manifests itself, first of all, in a feeling of despair, alienation, in a state of anomie, arising from objective states of deprivation (social, economic or organismic). It often results in actions aimed at eliminating objective forms of deprivation.

Conclusion

In its most general form, inequality means that people live in conditions in which they have unequal access to limited resources of material and spiritual consumption. To describe the system of inequality between groups of people in sociology, the concept of “social stratification” is widely used.

When considering the problem of social inequality, it is quite justified to proceed from the theory of socio-economic heterogeneity of labor. Performing qualitatively unequal types of labor, in varying degrees satisfying social needs, people sometimes find themselves engaged in economically heterogeneous labor, because such types of labor have a different assessment of their social utility.

It is the socio-economic heterogeneity of labor that is not only a consequence, but also the reason for the appropriation by some people of power, property, prestige and the absence of all these signs of “advancement” in the social hierarchy among others.

In social stratification tends to inherit positions. The operation of the principle of inheritance of positions leads to the fact that not all capable and educated individuals have equal chances to occupy positions of power, high principles, and well-paid positions.

Social stratification has a traditional character, since, with the historical mobility of form, its essence, i.e., the inequality of the position of different groups of people, is preserved throughout the history of civilization. Even in primitive societies, age and sex, combined with physical strength, were important criteria for stratification.

Considering the dissatisfaction of members of society with the existing system of distribution of power, property and conditions for individual development, one must still keep in mind the universality of people's inequality.

Bibliography

Hoffman A. B. Seven lectures on the history of sociology. M., 1995.

Zborovsky G. E. Orlov G. P. Sociology. M., 1995.

Komarov M.S. Introduction to sociology. M., 1995.

Komarov. M.S. Social stratification and social structure. Sociol. research 1992, No. 7.

Brief Dictionary of Sociology. - M.: Politizdat, 1988

Losev A. F. History of ancient aesthetics T II Sophists Socrates. Plato. M., 1969

Fundamentals of political science: a course of lectures. Textbook for universities / N. Sazonov, B. Reshetnyak and others - M., 1993.

The subject and structure of sociological science, sociological research, 1981. No.-1. p. 90.

Sociology. Textbook for higher educational institutions. G.V. Osipov, A.V. Kabyshcha, M.R. Tulchinsky and others - M .: Nauka, 1995.

Sociology: General Course: Textbook for High Schools.-M.: PER SE; Logos, 2000.

Sociology: Workshop. Comp. and rev. ed. A. V. Mironov, R. I. Rudenko. M., 1993.

Structure of social stratification and trends social mobility// American sociology / Per. from English. V.V. Voronina and E.E. Zinkovsky. M.: Progress, 1972. S. 235-247.

Philosophical Dictionary, 1991, - ed. I.T. Frolova.

Sociology: tutorial/ Ed. N.D. Kazakova. - M.: MGUPI, 2008. - 120 p.

The author analyzes different types social inequality, highlighting the specifics of inequality in education. State the main difference between inequality determined by education and other types of inequality. Based on the text, knowledge of the social science course, the facts of public life, give three other manifestations of inequality in modern society.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

Education as social institution Education in modern countries is a very wide and highly developed differentiated multilevel social systems(subsystems of society) continuous improvement of the knowledge and skills of members of society, which play an important role in the socialization of the individual, its preparation for obtaining one or another social status and the performance of relevant roles, in stabilization, integration and improvement public systems. Education plays a very important role in determining the social status of the individual, in the reproduction and development social structure society, in maintaining social order and stability, exercising social control.

Education, along with the army, church and industry, is one of the lifts of social mobility. Having received knowledge and high qualifications in modern society, it is much easier to make a career than a) it was in pre-industrial and industrial society, b) if a person did not possess them.

For a long time and to this day, education as a social institution has been the main mechanism social testing, selection and distribution of individuals by social strata, groups. The education system was entrusted with the functions of social control over the processes of intellectual, moral, and physical development of the younger generation. And on the system vocational education In addition, there are also functions of control over the distribution of the generation entering independent working life into various cells of the social structure of society: classes, social groups, strata, production teams.

Thus, education is one of the main channels of social mobility, playing an important role in the social differentiation of members of society, their distribution both among social strata and within these strata. The position of the individual in society, the possibilities for his successful promotion on career ladder are determined by the quality of the education received, which is largely related to the prestige of the educational institution.

The way it is. An uneducated person cannot get a highly paid and responsible job, no matter what social background he may be. The educated and the uneducated have unequal life chances, but the situation can always be corrected by improving one's qualifications, one has only to apply individual conditions. What distinguishes inequality in the field of education from other types of inequality, say, inherited, is that it puts a person in an unprivileged position temporarily. But if you were born the son of a king or a hereditary nobleman, then this is forever. Nothing can be done about such inequalities based on prescribed statuses.

(G.E. Tadevosyan)

Explanation.

The correct answer must contain the following elements:

1) The main difference between inequality in the field of education is indicated, for example:

Inequality in the field of education depends on the will and desire of the person himself, it can be corrected by improving one's qualifications.

2) Other types of inequality that are characteristic of modern society are given, for example:

Inequality based on prescribed statuses, such as ethnicity or social origin;

Inequality based on where a person lives, whether metropolitan or provincial;

Inequality associated with the peculiarities of appearance or health status, conditions of upbringing in the family.

Other manifestations of social inequality can also be cited.

Subject area: social relations. Social stratification and mobility

12. The stratification of society

Inequality between people exists in any society. This is quite natural, given that all people have differences, and it is just as impossible to make them equal as it is impossible to make everyone the same externally and internally. Even with the same income, some live economically, while others experience a constant shortage of funds. Absolute equality is a dream that allows one to hope that a society of complete social justice will one day be built.

People have repeatedly made attempts to build a socially just society. Almost constantly, with varying intensity, there is a struggle between the rich and the poor. Sectors with low and middle incomes do not want to put up with the fact that a significant part of social wealth belongs to a narrow circle of people, so they are trying to eliminate the existing injustice.

The greed of the rich, their unwillingness to share funds with the rest of society - this is one of the reasons leading to unbridled stratification. Bloody revolutions, change of political regimes - these are the consequences of the indifferent attitude of the "elite" to ordinary people, to those who actually create all material wealth, receiving little in return.

At the moment, it has not been possible to achieve social justice in society. Not a single revolution was able to eliminate inequality, and after any of them stratification arose again, the spiral of the class hierarchy twisted in a new way, accumulating energy for the next social upheavals.

Significant inequality polarizes society, perpetuates social injustice, making some masters of life and eternal executors (slaves) of others. Inequality is accompanied by poverty, which creates fertile ground for the marginalization of the population, inciting a person to join criminal communities, extremist, terrorist organizations. It is because of poverty that people often fall under bad influence, follow where they promise quick earnings and a good life.

It seems that the easiest way to eliminate inequality, to take and equally share all public wealth. But how then to evaluate the work of an idler and a hardworking person, how to encourage the best? This question should not be looked for simple solutions. Achieving equality among people is not easy, if only because there are too many reasons due to which there is a stratification among people. The civilized approach does not consist in striving to completely eradicate the causes of inequality, but in fighting so that it does not take on excessive, depressing forms.

The emergence of inequality in society can be explained by:

• natural differences between people;
• social and public factors;
• features of the social and state structure.

1. Natural differences between people (differences due to the natural data of a person)

All people differ in their possession:

• mental abilities, talents;
• entrepreneurial skills;
• knowledge and experience;
• moral, value orientations;
• physical, external data.

Mental capacity help a person in any activity. They allow you to acquire knowledge, help you solve problems, find non-standard solutions, make discoveries, and develop the right behavior strategy. All this contributes to the material well-being of a person and the appearance of inequality.

Talented people have unequal opportunities compared to the rest. If their unique natural talents are in demand by society, and not wasted, then they achieve success and recognition.

Entrepreneurial ability include a set of qualities, skills that allow a person to find opportunities for profit while engaging in any type of activity, make reasonable consistent decisions, create and apply innovations, and take acceptable, justified risk. Entrepreneurial skills are to some extent related to mental abilities, but still have some differences. These additionally include the ability to communicate, establish relationships, establish contacts with people and maintain relationships with them. There is also an entrepreneurial instinct that allows a person to intuitively make the right decisions.

Knowledge and experience important in any business. An experienced person has undeniable advantages over a person who for the first time decides on a new business for himself. Without experience and knowledge it is easy to make mistakes. It takes time to accumulate experience, and during this period a person often acts recklessly, acting "at random". However, it is much more rational to study the knowledge gained by other people. This will avoid many wrong actions.

In the modern world, moral attitudes do not help, but, on the contrary, interfere with earning big money. Positive moral qualities do not allow the use of dishonest methods for enrichment. Those who use such techniques usually win. However, to create an equal competitive environment, where everyone succeeds with their skills and abilities, and not with cunning and deceit, compliance with moral rules is a necessary condition.

External Data play a significant role in life. It is easier for a beautiful person to achieve greater success with the opposite sex, it is easier to successfully marry, marry, and also get a job where external data matters.

Physical Data allow a person to feel good, work without significant stress. Lack of physical data can become a limitation for work in some areas. It can be hard for a person with poor health or a disabled person to work, even at the easiest job.

Alas, in modern society, cases are not uncommon showing that the advantages described above do not work. So, situations arise in teams when, in the general mass of employees, the smartest, most talented person is "overwritten", they do not give him the opportunity to open up, show himself to the fullest. Often, management fears smart, responsible employees, assuming that they can take their place.

2. Inequality due to social and social factors:

• having unequal opportunities at birth;
• different levels of education;
• gender inequality;
• inequality due to age;
• inequality by nationality, race;
• inequality in place of residence;
• inequality due to family composition;
• possession of a profitable profession, position;
• a fortunate combination of circumstances conducive to the enrichment of a person.

Possession of unequal opportunities at birth

A child born in a family of wealthy parents has more opportunities. His parents can afford to hire tutors for individual lessons, pay for classes in circles, sports sections, take care of the child's leisure. Financial resources are a guarantee of good education and full development. Of course, all this is true if parents really care about their children and their future, and are not preoccupied with demonstrating their own superiority, turning a child into an obligatory attribute of personal success.

Material possibilities dictate the way of life, create the illusion that one has only to wish, how everything will be fulfilled. In rich families, the problem associated with a lack of love and attention is very common. People, busy with work, satisfaction of personal ambitions, deprive children of the most necessary - communication in the family. A child locked in a "golden cage" narrows the social circle, he becomes a stranger to peers from less wealthy families.

AT low-income families children, at times, are deprived of the most necessary: ​​good nutrition, quality clothing, normal living conditions. But it happens that difficulties do not always act negatively, sometimes they temper, teach to fight, to defend one's own position. As a result, a person adapts better to living conditions, gets used to achieving everything on his own, without relying on anyone.

The division of people into classes based on their origin is wrong. A person from a poor family who has received an education, has shown diligence and has gone through several levels of the social hierarchy, can be much better than a person with wealth from birth, devoid of understanding how difficult it is to achieve a high social position.

Different level of education

The lack of education in modern society is seen as a serious disadvantage that creates obstacles to employment. Even for unskilled positions, the employer prefers to hire a person with an education, because it raises labor discipline and cultural level. Uneducated people are more likely to work in less profitable sectors of the economy and are almost always in lower positions, resulting in low incomes.

The ongoing penetration into all spheres of life of computer science, electronics, technology makes new demands on modern workers, increases the demand for qualified, educated specialists. Now a person is required to have a high level of knowledge, the ability to learn quickly, assimilate new information, etc.

gender inequality

Biological differences between men and women create an insurmountable barrier to eliminating gender inequality. To overcome differences completely, for example, a woman will have to become as strong as a man, and a man will have to learn how to bear children. Differences between the sexes are manifested in thinking, temperament, perception, psyche, etc.

A woman will not be able to work in many male professions, especially where required physical strength, and the man - in women's. The division of professions by gender is quite natural. So, it is rare to meet a woman who wants to work as a loader, bricklayer, security guard or driver. It is also difficult to find a male caregiver, a nanny, a nurse, a seamstress, etc.

Society evaluates women's and men's labor differently. For some reason women's professions are usually low-paid, even for the same work as a man, a woman often receives a lower salary. Perhaps this is because low wages for women are not seen as a serious problem, since it is assumed that most of them should be supported by the spouse. But this deprives women of independence and does not take into account the fact that, in fact, most of them do not receive any support from men.

The birth of a child by a woman is an obstacle to building a career. A woman falls out of labor activity, taking on a significant amount of unpaid, unappreciated homework. Burdened with children, she is simply forced to devote a significant part of her time to the house.

The structure of modern society is still very patriarchal: as a rule, men are engaged in highly paid and prestigious work. In countries with a low standard of living, low literacy and education, the most important source of employment for women remains Agriculture or other work with a predominance of physical labor. In developed countries, women have the opportunity to study and work. They are more employed in health care, education, and other areas related to intellectual activity.

The double standard in relation to women is determined by traditions, customs, family values, existing ethics and morality. Gender inequality harms the entire society and negatively affects economic development. Countries where women enjoy equal rights are more developed and prosperous.

Inequality due to age

At each age, a person has different learning abilities, different creative and physical activity. It is not necessary to expect from an elderly person that he will be the same as a young one. Due to physiological changes with age, it becomes harder to absorb and remember information, harder to work. This is largely due to the negative attitude of employers towards people of pre-retirement age.

Young people also have problems with employment. A young man, a recent graduate of an educational institution, finds it difficult to find a job due to lack of experience. It turns out vicious circle when there is no experience and nowhere to acquire it. Some employers discriminate against young people, pay lower wages than older employees, believing that they must first earn equal treatment. If society is aimed at the future, at development, then young people should integrate as quickly as possible into adult working life on equal terms. A person at a young age wants to earn money, live well, start a family, this requires significant funds.

Inequality by nationality, race

Apparently, the remnants of the slave system have not yet been completely eliminated, if people of a different nationality, race are limited in their choice of work and are forced to go to low-paid, hard labour, change residence, country in search of a better life. Integration into normal life in another country may take more than one decade, and all this time there will be obstacles to equal membership in society, especially if there are external differences, poor knowledge of local traditions, language.

But it's not just migrants who face challenges. Modern migration flows are gaining such strength that the population historically residing in a given territory may be in an unequal position, in the minority. National diasporas and clans defend their interests, ignoring the laws adopted in society, create the environment they need, frankly ousting the indigenous population from some areas of activity.

An employer who hires a migrant who is willing to work for "penny" harms, first of all, his fellow citizens, depriving them of employment opportunities. An excess number of migrants leads to a drop in wages in some sectors of the economy. When cheap is available work force, no need to improve production processes to increase labor productivity.

Inequality by place of residence

Discrimination at the place of residence is associated with unequal access to educational, medical and other services, with the inability to find a job in the specialty. This is clearly seen in cities, where there is only one city-forming enterprise, or in rural areas, where the range of occupations is limited to agriculture.

An obstacle to moving a person to more prosperous regions can be a lack of funds, lack of housing, unwillingness to part with loved ones. If a person decides to change the country of residence, then there will be additional difficulties in obtaining citizenship.

An ordinary person is not to blame that he was born, grew up and lives in a depressed region or country, that his social status predetermined by unequal territorial opportunities.

The state itself differentiates the regions, establishing differences between them. people behind equal labor, depending on the region, receive different wages. Such differences can be justified only if there is an urgent need to attract the missing specialists, or as compensation for difficult climatic conditions. In all other cases, discrimination of people by place of residence cannot be justified in any way.

Possession of a profitable profession, position

Usually young people want to learn and get one of the prestigious professions in order to be in demand, highly paid specialists in the future. But this is not always possible to achieve for various reasons, one of them is unequal access to educational services. A person who is capable by nature can study at a school with "weak" teachers. As a result, his abilities will remain undiscovered by anyone.

Big difference in wages individual professions creates social inequality. The overvaluation of some of them leads to a significant difference in salaries by dozens of times, in relation to the average earnings of all other workers. The criteria for such differentiation are unclear. Indeed, with the appropriate organization of training, it is possible to fill the deficit of any specialists within a few years, or even months. Only a person with unique abilities and talents really deserves a high assessment of society, including in material terms. However, there are relatively few such people.

Managers have the highest salaries today. A manager, even a middle manager, can receive a salary equal to the salary of a small team. Is his contribution to the work so significant? Probably not. It’s just that such a system has developed in which it is quite legal, the appropriation of results has become commonplace. social labor, which manifests itself in the form of excessive payments administrative apparatus. Otherwise, as legalized theft, this state of affairs cannot be called. A doctor who saves lives or a scientist who conducts important research receives a meager monetary reward compared to directors large companies, whose salaries can support entire organizations. The benefits from the activities of the management are not comparable with their income, in addition, it should be taken into account that the appointment to leadership positions is not always done in an honest, open way.

Inequality due to family composition

Let's take a family of two as an example. They are successful and make good money together. They can be attributed to the notorious middle class. At some point, they decide to have a baby. After a certain period of time, a woman goes on maternity leave, family incomes decrease. With the advent of a child, expenses increase, which further reduces the standard of living of the family. As a result, the middle class family will move closer to the less wealthy segments of the population. But what if there are already several children in the family?

To ensure the average per capita income of the middle class for a family of four or five people, the head of the family will have to work hard, losing health, sacrificing personal time and life. The situation is even worse when a woman is a single mother, deprived of support. Her social position is very precarious and almost always borders on poverty.

A fortunate combination of circumstances that contribute to the enrichment of a person

It's rare to win the lottery, but it does happen. A person can become a millionaire in an instant. Chance plays a big role in our life. Even many scientific discoveries were made completely by accident.

Some people are always in search of their soulmate and cannot find it in any way, they change jobs all their lives in search of more money and cannot earn anything. In contrast, others immediately get a good job, earn decent money, get married and live with one person all their lives. Here, luck plays a significant role. Winning the lottery, receiving an inheritance, unexpected success in business - all these events are of a random nature and have a noticeable impact on a person's life.

An active life position will help to increase the likelihood of a successful combination of circumstances, because, as you know, water does not flow under a lying stone.

3. Inequality generated by the peculiarities of the social and state structure

The inequality associated with the existence of the state is expressed:

• the need to maintain a hierarchy;
• in possession of material values, property;
• in belonging to a certain group of persons, parties, diaspora, sects, etc. ;

Hierarchy in the state

In any control system there is a certain hierarchy, there are control centers and transmission links through which a separate object or objects is managed. When the hierarchy is eliminated, the system will be destroyed as a single integral structure.

In the state, the hierarchy is expressed in the form of the presence of branches of power and structures that perform the functions of management, execution and control in society. Power by its very existence creates inequality between those who have it and those who do not. It is not possible to eliminate such inequality, otherwise, the state itself will have to be destroyed.

The need to maintain control in society gives rise to the division of people into classes:

• managers, directly to whom the power belongs;
• people close to power, i.e. officials called to control and execute the will of the authorities;
• people protecting the authorities: the police, other law enforcement agencies;
• people occupying a privileged position in society, thanks to their position, wealth;
• ordinary people: workers, employees, intellectuals, who perform the main work of maintaining and servicing the entire state system.

People who are clothed state power, there are special powers through which they can influence any organization, which puts them in the hierarchy above any head of a commercial company. Big business, realizing this, tries to bring into power structures the people he needs, organizes the defense of his interests. The merging of business and power is a problem of modern society, leading to the fact that a relatively small layer of the richest people begins to have full power, acting in purely personal interests, not paying attention to the opinion of the majority, putting proprietary interests above state ones.

Possession of wealth, property

The possession of the means of production, financial assets, and other types of property is one of the sources of social inequality between people. Property can be obtained by inheritance, gift, acquired with personal or borrowed funds, seized by force or through financial fraud.

Property, properly disposed of, is capable of generating profit for its owners. The money that is in circulation creates new money and makes those who possess it even richer, increasing social stratification.

Under the capitalist system, capital tends to be concentrated in a relatively small stratum of society - the financial elite. The concentration of significant resources in one hand creates an obstacle to the realization of the abilities of other people. Most of the society is forced to work for already successful people. Ordinary people are partly deprived of opportunities to realize their professional preferences, because for the organization own business they may not have enough funds, and it is very difficult to break into already occupied market niches. And yet, sometimes ordinary person manage to start your own business and successfully develop it.

In any field of activity, success is helped by several factors, among which the personal qualities of a person and a successful combination of external circumstances are especially significant. Having accumulated some funds, the owner of his own business seeks to expand it in order to feel more confident. Having reached a certain level in business, he joins a special privileged part of society. People who have financial resources, have significant potential, carry out managerial functions. They can set up businesses, hire workers, set the size wages. The owners of large commercial companies have a significant impact on the economy, on the lives of ordinary people.

The class of owners tries to fix its exclusive position in society by creating special living conditions for itself. Accumulated wealth is passed down from generation to generation, creating inequality regardless of human ability.

Belonging to a certain group of persons

A group of people, united by some common interests, is able to accumulate forces and means to maintain its existence. Adjacency of a person to a group promises him certain benefits. In case of life problems, there will be someone to turn to for help. The simplest and famous example groups of people are a family. It is in it, most often, that a person finds spiritual and material support.

Belonging to a political party, to a religious sect, or even to a criminal organization are all examples of groups that people usually belong to. They help their members in moving up the career ladder, assist in business. This is done with the expectation that, in the future, from a successful person it will be possible to receive any dividends for the rest of the group.

Ways to eliminate inequality

1. It is impossible to eliminate the causes of inequality due to internal and external differences between people. It is unfair to reduce everything to a simple "leveling", not paying attention to personal achievements and results. People who work better should earn more, this is quite logical. But it should be understood that no matter how unique talents a person possesses, he is in demand only because he lives in society. Without society, none of us could express ourselves, realize our abilities.

What would a person do with his talents if he suddenly found himself alone in a dense forest or on a desert island? Surely he would have waged a constant struggle for his existence, trying to simply survive. The usual comfort will disappear from his life, there will be no things that people use every day without much thought. Any disease will become extremely dangerous when there are no doctors and medicines nearby. In such a situation, the maximum that a person can achieve is to build modest housing and create tools similar to those used in the Stone Age. No matter how hard he tries, he alone cannot do what people achieve by living in society.

The above example shows the existence of a person's dependence on society and suggests that the merits of individuals should not be overestimated. Everything that modern civilization has achieved is the product of the joint creation of many people, over several generations, and even very capable people should not be allowed to live in luxury, since they would not be able to prove themselves outside of society.

Money has never played a decisive role in the development of society. Many scientists and researchers were driven forward, first of all, by curiosity and the desire to understand the truth, and not by the desire to profit. Not money and wages are incentives for learning, getting something new, but a person's natural interest in everything unknown, the desire for knowledge, for understanding the world around him.

2. In a civilized society, there must be a system that provides control over people's income and expenses. This must be done in order to have an understanding of the origin of the funds, confidence that they were not obtained in any dishonest way. The excess of expenses over income indicates the receipt of money from unrecorded sources, and their origin should be explained. In principle, total control is not needed, it is quite enough to check what funds are used to make large purchases, especially luxury goods.

Control over income will help to avoid the existence of a shadow, unofficial labor market in the state, where relations between the employer and the employee are not regulated by law, and where it is impossible to determine the employment of a person, his income. Such a phenomenon as a salary "in an envelope" is an example of the unfair distribution of money and deception of the state. Additionally, control will help identify leaders who use their official position for personal enrichment.

The desire of a person to earn money is beneficial to society, since it constantly needs active people interested in their own well-being. Monetary reward helps to additionally motivate a person to achieve high performance in work. When money is earned by honest labor, and not acquired by deceit, then this is beneficial to the person himself and society.

3. The state is obliged to smooth out the difference in income between the lowest paid and highest paid segments of the population. It is unacceptable when some make ends meet, while others do not know where else to spend their money. In no case should the difference in incomes reach significant sizes, otherwise, it negatively affects the whole society. When a significant difference between the incomes of citizens is reached, the problem of inequality becomes acute. The state is obliged to provide support to the socially unprotected segments of the population, people with low incomes, and, even better, to act proactively and prevent the emergence of a category of needy citizens.

Today, money has begun to define the face of power. The richest are people who are in power, close to her or serving her interests. Social justice will not be achieved in the state until it ceases to act in accordance with the will of people who have big money, does not begin to make and implement decisions that are beneficial to the whole society.

4. Equal access to educational services, regardless of social origin, place of residence, etc., will enable a person to reveal his abilities. Lack of equal access actually means perpetuating economic, social and cultural inequalities.

A prerequisite for maintaining equality in education is the availability of free education at all its levels, the creation of a sufficient number of places in educational institutions so that everyone who wants to learn can realize their preferences. The only obstacle to getting an education can be an incorrect assessment of one's own capabilities by the person himself, the lack of sufficient physical and mental data necessary for training in the chosen profession. However, in a quality education system, abilities are identified, and training in accordance with them is recommended.

The state that invests in education invests in human capital makes society more cultural and developed.

5. It is very difficult to eliminate social inequality as long as laws are preserved in society that allow inheriting material values ​​without any restrictions. Through inheritance, a person from a wealthy family will have clear advantages from birth.

To eliminate this cause of inequality, it is necessary to work out measures that limit the amount of inherited property and Money. The motive for the accumulation of wealth for children and grandchildren, as an incentive to increase savings, must be gradually destroyed. Such measures will ensure social justice and an equal start for young people, regardless of who their parents were.

6. Structure economic structure in any country is not uniform. There are highly profitable industries associated with mining, trade, IT, etc., and there are industries that, by definition, will never be able to make a profit (education, medicine, science). Without redistribution in the state financial resources organizations performing social functions, cannot exist. The work of a teacher or a doctor is no less important than the work of an oilman, gasman or programmer. In order to avoid injustice, the state should monitor the wages in different sectors of the economy and equalize them as much as possible.

7. Fair pay implies that people receive equal pay for the same job. This is possible if the organization has adopted a transparent, open system that reflects the income of each employee. However, today it is not customary to declare one's own income, which is explained by the existing injustice in the distribution of funds. If everything was without deceit, then there would be nothing to hide. Today, very often people, working in the same team, doing the same work, receive different salaries.

Employers contribute to the maintenance of inequality by creating an atmosphere of secrecy. The true purpose of such behavior is to save on employees, to extract the maximum benefit for yourself. They take into account the psychology of people, realizing that someone may agree to work for less money.

A civilized approach is to ensure that all people working in the same team know the income of their colleagues. Then it will become clear how fair the remuneration is, and whether it corresponds to the real return from each individual person.

Of course, the work of people who contribute more to the common cause should be valued higher, but this difference should not differ significantly. It should be borne in mind that the result of labor in a team is of a social nature.

To prevent the stratification of people, it is necessary to ensure a fair distribution of profits received in the organization, and to eliminate a significant difference in income between managers and subordinates.

8. If uncontrolled migration processes occur in any country, then it has internal sources instabilities that contribute to the uncontrolled movement of people. Usually people do not leave their homeland because of a good life. For most of them, migration is a forced necessity, an attempt to escape from wars, violence, hunger, poverty, etc.

Countries that receive migrants have the responsibility of integrating newcomers into society. Provision of housing, teaching the language, professions are costly activities. Funds for all this are taken from the budget, which means they are taken from local residents. The manifestation of humanism is certainly a good thing, but not a single economically developed country will be able to accept everyone who wants to come to it, to shelter disadvantaged people from all over the world. Mass migration is a negative phenomenon, and it is necessary to fight not with the consequences, but with the causes that cause it.

To reduce migration flows, it is necessary to: prevent military conflicts, overcome backwardness in cultural and educational areas, elimination of economic inequality between countries.

9. In any organization there are always people who perform managerial functions. They occupy a special position in society, because of this, inequality arises. To eliminate it, there is one universal recipe, it is necessary to ensure a periodic change of leaders.

The principle of change of leadership may well be applied nationwide. The turnover of the managerial staff creates conditions for ensuring social mobility and implies the movement of people from one social group to another.

At work, bosses must periodically replace each other, in the state - politicians, and all this must be taken as a mandatory rule to maintain social justice. In order to prevent incapable or mercenary people from getting into leadership positions, it is necessary to conduct a thorough selection, first of all, according to the moral and mental qualities of a person.

10. It is very difficult to eliminate inequalities completely. Therefore, people need to educate an adequate perception of it. Condemn extreme manifestations of inequality, flaunting wealth, luxury. One should not measure the success of a person solely by the possession of material values ​​and prosperity. The real wealth of a person is his intellect and moral qualities. People should be aware of the exceptional value of human life, and that no things can compare with it in value.

diary

capital deception

Money in the morning, chairs in the evening. This option still seems acceptable, compared to what modern officials offer us: money - today, and a service - in a few years. Doesn't this look like a scam?

About housing and communal services

In Russia, the annual increase in tariffs for housing and communal services has already become commonplace. The need for this is due to the fact that service companies and resource providers need to compensate for losses from inflation.

Inequality characterizes the uneven distribution of society's scarce resources - money, power, education and prestige - between different strata or strata of the population. On the scale of inequality, the rich will be at the top and the poor at the bottom.

If wealth is a sign of the upper class, then income - the flow of cash receipts for a certain calendar period, say, a month or a year - characterizes all sections of society. Income is any amount of money received in the form of wages, pensions, rents, allowances, alimony, royalties, etc. Even the alms of the poor, obtained by begging and expressed in terms of money, is a kind of income.

On this basis, the following population groups can be distinguished: (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1 - Units of measurement of economic inequality by population groups

From Figure 1.1 it follows that the population is divided into 4 groups:

1. Rich

2. Middle class

The fact is that along with a broad understanding of income, there is a narrow one. In a statistical sense, income is the amount of money that people earn due to belonging to a certain profession (type of occupation) or due to the legal disposal of property. However, beggars, even if they regularly earn a living by begging, do not provide any valuable service to society. And statistics take into account only those sources of income that are associated with the provision of valuable, socially significant services or with the production of goods. Beggars are included in the so-called underclass, i.e. literally not a class, or layer below all classes. Thus, beggars fall out of the official income pyramid.

The essence of social inequality lies in unequal access various categories population to socially significant benefits, scarce resources, liquid values. The essence of economic inequality is that a narrow stratum of society owns most of the national wealth. Most incomes can be distributed in different ways. For example, in the United States, the income level of the majority allows us to speak of the presence of a large middle class, while in Russia the income level of the majority of the population is often below the subsistence level. Accordingly, the pyramid of incomes, their distribution among population groups, in other words, inequality, can be depicted in the first case as a rhombus, and in the second - as a cone. As a result, we get a stratification profile, or an inequality profile.

The essence of social inequality

A variety of relationships, roles, positions lead to differences between people in each particular society. The problem comes down to somehow streamlining these relations between categories of people that differ in many aspects.

What is inequality? In its most general form, inequality means that people live in conditions in which they have unequal access to limited resources of material and spiritual consumption. To describe the system of inequality between groups of people in sociology, the concept of “social stratification” is widely used.

When considering the problem of social inequality, it is quite justified to proceed from the theory of socio-economic heterogeneity of labor. Performing qualitatively unequal types of labor, satisfying social needs to varying degrees, people sometimes find themselves engaged in economically heterogeneous labor, because such types of labor have a different assessment of their social utility.

The essence of social inequality, as we have already said, is the unequal access of various categories of the population to socially significant benefits, scarce resources, and liquid values. The essence of economic inequality is that a minority of the population always owns most of the national wealth. In other words, the smallest part of society receives the highest incomes, and the majority of the population receives the average and the smallest. The latter can be distributed in different ways. IN THE USA lowest income(as, indeed, the largest ones) are received by a minority of the population, and the middle ones - by the majority. In Russia today, the majority receives the lowest incomes, while average incomes are relatively large group, and the highest - a minority of the population.

It is the socio-economic heterogeneity of labor that is not only a consequence, but also the reason for the appropriation of power, property, prestige by some people and the absence of all these advantages in the social hierarchy for others. Each of the groups develops its own values ​​and norms and relies on them. If representatives of such groups are placed on a hierarchical basis, then these groups are social strata.

In social stratification there is a tendency to inherit positions. The operation of the principle of inheritance of positions leads to the fact that not all capable and educated individuals have equal chances to occupy positions of power, high principles, and well-paid positions. There are two selection mechanisms at work here: unequal access to genuinely high-quality education and unequal opportunities for obtaining positions by equally prepared individuals.

Social stratification has a traditional character: the inequality of the position of different groups of people persists throughout the history of civilization. Even in primitive societies, age and sex, combined with physical strength, were important criteria for stratification.

Let us imagine a situation where there are numerous social strata in a society, the social distance between which is small, the level of mobility is high, the lower strata are a minority of members of society, fast technological growth constantly raises the “bar” of meaningful work on the lower tiers of production positions, social protection of the weak, among other things, guarantees calmness and realization of potentials for the strong and advanced. It is hard to deny that such a society, such interlayer interaction is rather an ideal model in its own way than an everyday reality.

Most modern societies are far from this model. They are characterized by the concentration of power and resources in a numerically small elite. The concentration among the elite of such status attributes as power, property, and education hinders social interaction between the elite and other strata, leads to excessive social distance between it and the majority. This means that the middle class is small and the top is deprived of contact with other groups. It is obvious that such social order promotes destructive conflicts.