Social inequality

Even a superficial look at the people around us gives reason to talk about their dissimilarity. People are different by gender, age, temperament, height, hair color, intelligence level and many other features. Nature endowed one with musical abilities, the other with strength, the third with beauty, and prepared the fate of a weak invalid for someone. Differences between people, due to their physiological and mental characteristics, are called natural.

Natural differences are far from harmless, they can become the basis for the emergence of unequal relationships between individuals. The strong force the weak, the cunning triumph over the simpletons. Inequality resulting from natural differences is the first form of inequality, in one form or another manifested in some species of animals. However, in humansociety the main thing is social inequality, inextricably linked with social differences, social differentiation.

Social those are called differences, which generated social factors: lifestyle (urban and rural population), division of labor (manual and manual workers), social roles (father, doctor, politician), etc., which leads to differences in the degree of ownership of property, income, power, achievement social status, prestige, education.

Various levels social development are base for social inequality , the emergence of rich and poor, the stratification of society, its stratification (a stratum layer that includes people with the same income, power, education, prestige).

Income- the amount of cash receipts received by a person per unit of time. It may be labor, or it may be the possession of property that “works”.

Education- a complex of knowledge obtained in educational institutions. Its level is measured by the number of years of study. Say, incomplete secondary school - 9 years. The professor has more than 20 years of education behind him.

Power- the ability to impose your will on other people, regardless of their desire. It is measured by the number of people to whom it applies.

Prestige- this is an assessment of the position of the individual in society, prevailing in public opinion.

Causes of social inequality

The explanation of social inequality by the principle of functional utility is fraught with a serious danger of a subjectivist interpretation. Indeed, why is this or that function considered as more significant, if society as an integral organism cannot exist without functional diversity. This approach does not allow explaining such realities as the recognition of an individual as belonging to the highest stratum in the absence of his direct participation in management. That is why T. Parsons, considering the social hierarchy as a necessary factor that ensures the viability of the social system, links its configuration with the system of dominant values ​​in society. In his understanding, the location of social strata on the hierarchical ladder is determined by the ideas that have formed in society about the significance of each of them.

Observations of the actions and behavior of specific individuals gave impetus to the development status explanation of social inequality. Each person, occupying a certain place in society, acquires his own status. Social inequality is an inequality of status, resulting both from the ability of individuals to perform a particular social role (for example, to be competent to manage, to have the appropriate knowledge and skills to be a doctor, lawyer, etc.), and from the opportunities that allow a person to achieve one or another position in society (ownership of property, capital, origin, belonging to influential political forces).

Consider economic view to the problem. In accordance with this point of view, the root cause of social inequality lies in the unequal attitude to property, the distribution of material wealth. most brightly this approach appeared in Marxism. According to his version, the emergence of private property led to the social stratification of society, the formation antagonistic classes. The exaggeration of the role of private property in the social stratification of society led Marx and his followers to the conclusion that it is possible to eliminate social inequality by establishing public ownership of the means of production.

The lack of a unified approach to explaining the origins of social inequality is due to the fact that it is always perceived at least at two levels. First, as a property of society. Written history knows no societies without social inequality. The struggle of people, parties, groups, classes is a struggle for the possession of greater social opportunities, advantages and privileges. If inequality is an inherent property of society, then it carries a positive functional load. Society reproduces inequality because it needs it as a source of life support and development.

Secondly, inequality always perceived as unequal relations between people, groups. Therefore, it becomes natural to seek to find the origins of this unequal position in the peculiarities of a person's position in society: in the possession of property, power, in the personal qualities of individuals. This approach is now widely used.

Inequality has many faces and manifests itself in various parts of a single social organism: in the family, in an institution, at an enterprise, in small and large social groups. It is necessary condition organization of social life. Parents, having an advantage in experience, skills, and financial resources in comparison with their young children, have the opportunity to influence the latter, facilitating their socialization. The functioning of any enterprise is carried out on the basis of the division of labor into managerial and subordinate-executive. The appearance of a leader in the team helps to unite it, turn it into a stable education, but at the same time it is accompanied by the provision leader of special rights.

Any social institution, organization strives to preserve inequalities seeing in it ordering beginning, without which it is impossible reproduction of social ties and integration of the new. The same property belongs to society as a whole.

Social inequality"- form of social differentiation, at which individual individuals, social groups, layers, classes are at different steps of the vertical social hierarchy and have unequal life chances and opportunities to meet needs.

In the very general view inequality means that people live in conditions in which they have unequal access to limited resources of material and spiritual consumption.

Fulfilling qualitatively unequal working conditions, satisfying social needs to varying degrees, people sometimes find themselves engaged in economically heterogeneous labor, because such types of labor have a different assessment of their social utility. Considering the dissatisfaction of members of society with the existing system of distribution of power, property and conditions for individual development, one must still keep in mind the universality of people's inequality.

The main mechanisms of social inequality are relations property, power (dominance and subordination), social (i.e., socially fixed and hierarchized) division of labor, as well as uncontrolled, spontaneous social differentiation. These mechanisms are mainly associated with the characteristics of a market economy, with inevitable competition (including labor market) and unemployment. Social inequality is perceived and experienced by many people (primarily the unemployed, economic migrants, those who are at or below the poverty line) as a manifestation of injustice. Social inequality, property stratification of society, as a rule, lead to an increase in social tension, especially in the transition period. This is what is characteristic of Russia today. [ source unspecified 164 days ]

The main principles of social policy implementation are:

protection standard of living by introducing different forms compensation for price increases and indexation;

providing assistance to the poorest families;

extradition help in case of unemployment;

policy enforcement social insurance, establishing minimum wage for employees;

development of education, protection of health, environment mainly at the expense of the state;

pursuing an active policy aimed at ensuring qualifications.

First of all, the causes of inequality include the presence or absence of income-generating conditions. Therefore, the growth of unemployment objectively strengthens this inequality, which is supplemented by a number of moral and psychological factors that worsen the social situation of people who do not find an adequate application of their abilities in the economic life of society.

The reasons for inequality in the distribution of income also include the level of education and training. These factors predetermine the ability of an employee to perform certain tasks. professional features or types of work, which is more objectively related to the level of payment for the services provided to them. In addition, a higher level of education and training creates the preconditions for high labor force mobility in the face of inevitable accelerated structural shifts in social production, which again reduces the costs of society for the preparation and implementation of certain types of economic activity.

The next cause of social inequality is the relationship of property ownership, with which unearned income is associated. These are interest, dividends, rent. Considering that property is inherited, it can be concluded that the property differentiation of the population is accompanied by its differentiation in terms of income. Of course, property relations often interact with other income factors. However, for the vast majority of the population, property income is in the form of an addition to the basic income, and a small part of the population gets the opportunity. Assign high incomes to property, which is their fundamental or only source.

Of no small importance are such reasons as the degree of market power (power), discrimination, bureaucratization of state power and corporate governance.

They manifest themselves with the greatest force during transitional periods, when, under the banner of democratization and liberalization, the bureaucracy acquires self-contained significance and real power, especially in relation to the disposal of state property.

This is the fertile ground on which the so-called bureaucratic and kleptocratic bourgeoisie grows.

To determine the degree of uneven distribution of income among the population of the country, various methods of calculation are used. In particular, the functional distribution of income makes it possible to determine the share of the corresponding factor of production in the national income.

The most widely known and tested in public practice is the so-called Lorenz curve.

The Lorenz curve is a graphical method for determining deviations in the income distribution system from lines of abstract possibility of absolute equality in their distribution.

To construct the Lorentz curve, the abscissa axis plots the shares of families (as a percentage of their total number) with the corresponding percentage of income, and the ordinate axis shows the income shares received by these families.

Moreover, the shares are chosen arbitrarily. However, to build a line of absolute equality, it is necessary to observe a proportional distribution of income: a certain share of families corresponds to the same share of income. In the example shown, this share is 1/5 (20%) (see Fig. 1).

Fig.1 Lorenz curve

As can be seen, the first three groups of families, which make up 60% of their total number in Russia, accounted for only 32.5% of the total income in the country. Whereas the most affluent group of families (fifth) appropriated 44.7% of it. Only a fourth group of families receive income (22%) approximately in proportion to their share in total strength families in the country. The most disadvantaged group of families (the first) receives only 6.5% of the total household income.

To assess the uneven distribution of income between population groups, the income concentration index (Gini coefficient) is used. It tends to zero as the level of income among the population is equalized and to one in the case of an increase in the polarization of society in terms of income.

Along with the Gini coefficient, to characterize the differentiation of the incomes of the population, the coefficient of funds or the decimal coefficient of income differentiation is used. It shows how large the income gap is among the most widely separated groups of the population, which have the same share in the total population: the 10% of the population with the lowest incomes and the 10% with the highest.

The UN calculates an indicator - the human development index. This indicator gives a generalized description of the quality of life of the population. This takes into account the value of life expectancy, the level of education achieved and the income of the population. The value of this index is defined as the arithmetic mean of the indices of the level of education, income (GDP) and life expectancy of the population. The closer the value of this indicator to 1, the higher the development of human potential (opportunities) in a given country.

Finishing the first chapter, we can conclude about the complexity of the welfare problem. Well-being is difficult to assess, but in a simplified version, well-being directly depends on income. There are many various classifications income, the main among all the concepts of income is the concept of personal income. Depending on the amount of personal income, an individual can be attributed to one or another segment of the population. The stratification of society is a natural state of social life, which is caused, among other things, by objective causes of income inequality. Among these reasons, there are those that depend both on the person himself and the conditions of his life, and on the traditions that have developed in society. The measurement of income and well-being is based on various indicators, which include GDP per capita, the consumer basket and, calculated on its basis, the cost of living.

What is social inequality? Where did this concept come from? What are the prerequisites for its appearance and how to deal with it? These questions have been pondered by sociologists and economists from all over the world and for a very long time. a large number time. The topic of inequality has taken a special place in the thoughts of Russians.

The problem of social inequality is associated with the appearance of the first signs of social differentiation (differentiation is the allocation of a certain part from common objects or knowledge according to certain characteristics), which later created more and more new and complex problems that are associated with this.

Inequality occupies a special place in any sociological study, but the explanation of this concept, its nature, the relationship of individual forms remains one of the most important problems of any sociological study.

In any textbook of sociology, the concept of social inequality is defined in different ways. In order to better understand this issue we need to define the concept of social inequality.

Social inequality is a form of differentiation in which individuals, social groups, strata, classes are at different levels of the vertical social hierarchy, and have unequal life chances and opportunities to meet needs.

Social inequality is the conditions under which people have unequal access to social benefits: money, services, power.

In general terms, social inequality means that people live in unequal social conditions and they have uneven access to both material and spiritual resources.

Social differences are those differences that are generated by social factors: urban or rural population, knowledge worker or manual worker, and social role in society, and so on, which leads to a difference in income, power and social status, as well as education.

To describe the system of inequality between groups (communities) of people in sociology, the concept of "social stratification" is widely used. The very word "stratification" is taken from geologists. In English, it began to be understood as a layer, a formation in geology, a layer of society (in social science). Stratification suggests that social differences between people acquire the character of a hierarchical ranking.

Inequality between people exists in any society. And this is quite normal, since people differ in mental abilities, physical abilities, interests and preferences, values ​​in life. In absolutely any society, there are rich and poor, people with power and people who do not have it, educated people and uneducated people. In this regard, the problem of social inequality has always arisen, which aroused increased interest only among economists, politicians, but also among ordinary citizens who were concerned about this problem.

The German economist K. Marx associated social inequality with the emergence of private property and the struggle of interests of various classes and social groups.

The German sociologist R. Dahrendorf also believed that economic and status inequality, which underlies the ongoing conflict of groups and classes and the struggle for the redistribution of power and status, is formed as a result of the action market mechanism regulation of supply and demand.

The Russian-American sociologist P. Sorokin explained the inevitability of social inequality by the following factors: internal biopsychic differences of people; environment(natural and social), objectively placing individuals in an unequal position; the joint collective life of individuals, which requires the organization of relations and behavior, which leads to the stratification of society into the ruled and the managers.

The American sociologist T. Pearson explained the existence of social inequality in every society by the presence of a hierarchized system of values. For example, in American society, success in business and career is considered the main social value, therefore, scientists of technological specialties, plant directors, etc., have a higher status and income, while in Europe the dominant value is “preservation of cultural patterns”, in connection with what society gives special prestige to humanities intellectuals, clergymen, university professors.

Understanding social inequality can only be done by looking at the differences between people. These differences can be congenital or acquired, they can be natural or social in nature, they can also be material or spiritual, physiological, mental, intellectual.

Mark Weber - a classic of world sociological theory, expressed the decisive importance for the formation of modern ideas about the essence, forms and functions of social inequality. The idea is that the individual is the subject of social action.

In contrast to Marx, Weber, apart from the economic nuance of stratification, took into account these nuances as power and authority. Weber considered property, power and authority as 3 separate interacting factors that underlie hierarchies in any society. Differences in ownership give rise to economic classes; differences related to power give rise to political parties, and status groups or strata provide special differences. From this, he defined the concept of "3 independent dimensions of stratification." He emphasized that "classes", "status groups", "parties" belong to the sphere of distribution of power within society.

The main difference between Weber and Marx is that, as Weber argued, the class has no possibility of being the subject of action, since it is not considered a community. Unlike Marx, Weber associated the definition of class only with the capitalist community, where the market is one of the most important regulators of relations. With the help of it, a person is able to satisfy his needs in material terms.

But in the market people occupy different positions or are in different “class situations”. Here everything is sold and purchased. Some sell products, services, while others - labor. The difference here is that they seem to have property, while the rest do not. Weber does not have a definite structure for capitalist society, so his writings provide inconsistent lists of classes.

At the very beginning, inequality is based on natural differentiation - differences between people due to their physical, mental, intellectual traits. They can be both congenital (gender, race, intelligence, physical health) and acquired in nature (obtained in the process of learning, training).

One of the main differences, due to which the unequal attitude of people develops and, in the future, social inequality, are natural differences. These differences formed the basis of inequality in primitive times, but they have not lost their significance to this day. The differences lie in the fact that there is a shift of some accents to others. Under this concept fit such phenomena as racism, Nazism, and in most cases in modern world and in many countries, social inequality is influenced by: race, skin color, nationality. The weakening of these factors is a concern for political forces. For example, the creation of decent working conditions and full-fledged living, the fight against racial prejudices.

There is another level of differentiation of individuals - social. Social differences are differences that are created by social factors, the main ones being:

• 1) The division of social labor, after which new different kinds human occupations and professions
• 2) The occupation of a person is determined only by the content of his activity
• 3) The standard of living is related to external conditions in relation to a person. Physical conditions: nature, climate, landscape, population. Cultural conditions are determined by the environment in which a person lives (language, norms, religion, traditions, and so on)
• 4) A person's lifestyle is his feature. It depends on the age of the person, gender, education, occupation.

Modern culture allows for inequalities in income or positions that people do not object to, in contrast to inequalities based on nationality.

The essence of social inequality is that it is a universal characteristic of a society in which people have unequal life chances for the moral and spiritual benefits of society.

The phenomenon of the concept of poverty became the subject of research in modern domestic sociology in the 90s. In Soviet times, the concept of poverty did not exist at all; it was replaced by the concept of low income, which is revealed in the theory of welfare.

Max Weber, a classic of world theory in the field of sociology, expressed his point of view, which was of decisive importance for the formation of advanced ideas about the essence, forms and functions of inequality in society. The main ideas of this thought are that a person is considered the subject of social action.

In contrast to Marx, Weber, apart from the economic nuance of stratification, took into account these nuances as power and authority. Weber viewed property, power, and authority as separate interacting factors that underlie hierarchies in any society. Differences in ownership give rise to economic classes; differences that relate to power give rise to political parties, and elite differences provide status groupings (strata).

From here he formulated the concept of "three autonomous dimensions of stratification".

He emphasized that "classes", "status groups", "parties" are phenomena that relate to the sphere of distribution of power within society.

Weber's main contradiction with Marx is that Weber associated the definition of class only with a capitalist society, where the market is the regulator of relationships. With the help of it, a person satisfies his own material needs. But in the market people occupy different positions and are in different “class situations”. Everyone buys and sells here. Some sell goods and services, while others sell labor.

The difference is that some have property and others do not. Weber does not have a clear definition of the class structure of capitalist society, so various interpreters of his work provide inconsistent lists of classes.

If we take into account his methodological views, and summarizing his historical, socio-economic works, then we can reconstruct Weber's typology of classes under capitalism:

• 1. Working class
• 2. Petty bourgeoisie
• 3. "White Collar"
• 4. Administrators and managers
• 5. Owners

Social inequality is a phenomenon that is practically impossible to avoid; appears in all types of society and at all stages of historical development; only the forms and degree of social inequality change historically. On the other hand, then a person would not have an incentive to engage in complex, dangerous or even uninteresting activities, to improve their skills. Thanks to income inequality, society induces people (individuals) to the necessary occupations, but rather difficult, encourages the most talented.

The problem of social inequality is one of the most acute and urgent problems. individuality public structure Russian society is a strong social polarization - the division of society into the poor and the rich in the absence of a middle system, which is the basis of an economically stable and developed country. A strong social division reproduces a system of inequality and injustice, in which the ability of independent life self-realization and an increase in social status for a fairly large proportion of the Russian population of the country.

Theory social stratification and social mobility P. Sorokina (1889-1968)

P. Sorokin's theory of stratification was first presented in his work "Social mobility" (1927), which is considered a classic work in this area.

social stratification, according to Sorokin, is the differentiation of a given set of people (population) into classes in a hierarchical rank. Its basis and essence lies in the uneven distribution of rights and privileges, responsibilities and obligations, the presence or absence of social values, power and influence among members of a particular community.

The whole variety of social stratification can be reduced to three main forms - economic, political and professional, which are closely intertwined. This means that those who belong to the highest stratum in one respect usually belong to the same stratum in another dimension; and vice versa. This happens in most cases, but not always. According to Sorokin, the interdependence of the three forms of social stratification is far from complete, because the various layers of each form do not quite coincide with each other, or rather, they coincide only partially. Sorokin first called this phenomenon a status mismatch. It lies in the fact that a person can occupy a high position in one stratification and a low position in another. Such a discrepancy is painfully experienced by people and can serve as an incentive for some to change their social position, to lead to social mobility of the individual.

Considering professional stratification, Sorokin singled out interprofessional and intraprofessional stratification.

There are two universal grounds for interprofessional stratification:

• the importance of the occupation (profession) for the survival and functioning of the group as a whole;
• the level of intelligence necessary for the successful performance of professional duties.

Sorokin concludes that in any given society there are more professional work is to exercise the functions of organization and control and requires a higher level of intelligence for its performance and accordingly implies the privilege of the group and its higher rank, which it occupies in the interprofessional hierarchy.

Sorokin represented intraprofessional stratification as follows:

• entrepreneurs;
• employees of the highest category (directors, managers, etc.);
• hired workers.

To characterize the professional hierarchy, he introduced the following indicators:

• height;
• number of storeys (number of ranks in the hierarchy);
• occupational stratification profile (the ratio of the number of people in each occupational subgroup to all members of the occupational group).

social stratification.

The concept of "stratum" served as the basis for the development of the theory of stratification of society. The author of this theory was an American sociologist of Russian origin, Pitirim Sorokin.

• Social stratification is a hierarchically organized structure of social inequality.
  Social stratification is the division of society into social strata (strata). The basis of social stratification is the inequality of people in society. P. Sorokin identifies four groups of reasons for the inequality of people:
• rights and privileges;
• duties and responsibilities;
• social wealth and need;
• power and influence.

Social stratification has its own characteristics: firstly, rank stratification - the upper strata of society are in a more privileged position than the lower ones. They have great rights, power, wealth. Secondly, the upper layers are much smaller in terms of the number of members included in them. However, in modern societies this order can be violated. The poor strata may be inferior in quantitative terms to the stratum constituting the so-called "middle class". This is due to the fact that the increase in the number of the middle class acts as a guarantor of political stability and the development of society. therefore, the state is interested in every possible way in its creation, in increasing the number of people standing in the middle of the social ladder. Pitirim Sorokin identified three types of stratification in society:

1. Economic stratification is the division of society according to the criteria of income and wealth.
2. Political stratification is the stratification of people according to the degree of influence on the behavior of other members of society, according to the amount of power they hold.
3. Occupational stratification is the division of society into different strata based on successful execution social roles, availability of knowledge and skills, education, etc.

So, the social structure of society, according to the theory of stratification by Pitirim Sorokin, is as follows:
Type of stratification Economic Political Occupational
Social stratum Wealthy Leaders Masters
poor subordinate apprentices
Each person occupies a certain position in society, that is, has a social status. The social status of a person depends on his origin, sex, age, marital status, professions. There is a distinction between inborn status (social origin, nationality), which does not depend on the actions and desires of a person, and achieved status (education, marital status, etc.), that is, what a person can achieve in life.
Status determines a person's behavior in society, his purpose - in this case, they talk about a social role. If a person's behavior corresponds to moral norms, the system of values ​​accepted in society, then they say that a person copes with his social role and his status rises. Status also predetermines the individual's lifestyle, social circle, interests and needs - here we are talking about a certain image (image) that most people have about representatives of one or another social group. To assess the status of a person in society, the concepts of authority and prestige are also used.

• Social prestige can be defined as a correlative assessment by society of the actions and behavior of a person, his physical dignity and moral and psychological qualities on the basis of a certain system of values ​​adopted in this society. The person is the bearer of prestige. A prestigious phenomenon acts as a motivator of desires, feelings, intentions, actions of a person, the desire to imitate the bearer of prestige, to occupy an appropriate position, to master a prestigious profession. Prestigious assessments, as regulators of behavior, determine such processes in society as migration, professional employment, consumption patterns, and so on.
• Authority is one of the forms of exercising power, expressed in the informal influence of a certain person or social group on the actions and thoughts of a person.

The influence of authority is usually not associated with coercion. It is based on knowledge, moral dignity, experience (for example, the authority of parents, teachers). Authority has weight where a person is faced with a problem that he cannot solve. In this case, there is a need to accept the point of view of the bearer of authority, rely on his experience and knowledge of life.
Social stratification of Russian society. The working class, the collective farm peasantry and a class-like layer (class stratum) - the intelligentsia - were singled out in the scientific literature as the main elements of the social-class structure of a socialist society. The main focus of the analysis social structure was done on the dynamics of relations between classes. The leading trends in the change in the social structure were recognized as the reduction in the proportion of the peasantry, the growth of the working class and the intelligentsia. However, it should be recognized that this triad is schematic, simplified and, in fact, does not reflect reality. First of all, if only because it does not take into account the so-called "nomenclature", which occupied a dominant position in socialist society. A positive moment in the activities of the nomenklatura as a social class is the industrialization carried out by it and the spread of culture associated with it. However, economic management is characterized by extreme wastefulness, and culture has the character of propaganda. The weakness of the nomenklatura lies in the fact that it has fenced itself off from the society it governs.
At present, the nomenklatura as a class does not exist, but the problem of governance and those governed in society remains. What used to be called the nomenklatura has now been transformed, “repainted in other colors”, but essentially remained the same - a bureaucracy, which is a rather closed group, where outsiders (“people from the street”) are tried to be excluded, having a certain circle of privileges, the boundaries of which are constantly trying to expand. Bureaucracy is a characteristic of any developed society. Effectively performing organizational functions in society, it proves its necessity. However, the assignment of political functions by the bureaucracy leads to the destabilization of society, to authoritarianism. Therefore, it is necessary to clearly distinguish between the functions of political (these functions should be performed by people holding elected positions) and administrative (they are implemented by civil servants appointed to office).
The social structure of modern Russian society is the subject of controversy between Russian and foreign sociologists and political scientists. The processes taking place in the country have increased the mobility (mobility and variability) of the social structure of Russia, and the number of social strata has sharply increased. This is due to the fact that in society there is a tendency towards an increase in social inequality, and for various reasons (economic, political, professional, regional, national, etc.). Some researchers identify Russian society layers like this:

• top political and cultural elite,
• middle layers ruling apparatus,
• lower level of management bodies;
• leading business leaders
• middle-ranking business executives,
• grassroots chiefs, up to foremen and foremen;
• specialists of various profiles;
• workers of different qualifications and different social status;
• members of collective farms and cooperators;
• agricultural farmers;
• pensioners and disabled people;
• seasonal workers, declassed and criminal elements, etc.

Such a representation of the social structure is possible on the basis of the concept of social stratification, which takes into account the multidimensionality of the structure of society based on such criteria as power, property, professional and labor activity and the level of education.
hallmark modern society, among other things, is the relative openness of the strata - a person can repeatedly change his social status, since the objective criterion for the distribution of people into strata of society - origin - no longer plays a decisive role. Moving an individual from one social stratum to another, changing his social status is called social mobility. There are two types of social mobility:

• horizontal mobility is the movement of an individual within one social stratum. There are territorial mobility (change of residence), religious (change of religion), family (change of marital status);
• vertical mobility is the movement of an individual "up and down" along the social ladder, from one social stratum to another. Allocate economic, political and professional mobility. Vertical mobility can be upward - an increase in one's social status, and downward - a decrease in a person's social status. However, every normal person strives to improve his position, to acquire a higher social status. The ways in which a person changes his social position are called "social elevators". In total there are six main "elevators" - economy, politics, army, church, science, marriage.

Social differentiation

Social differentiation is an intra-group process that determines the position and status of members of a given community. The social differentiation of society is an attribute inherent in all types of societies. Already in primitive cultures, where there were no differences between people in terms of wealth, there were differences due to the personal qualities of individuals - physical strength, experience, gender. A person could occupy a higher position due to successful hunting and fruit gathering. Individual differences continue to play an important role in modern societies.

According to functionalist theory, in any society, some activities are considered more important than others. This leads to differentiation of both individuals and professional groups. Occupation of activities of different significance for society underlies existing inequalities and, consequently, causes unequal access to such social benefits as money, power, prestige.

Systems of social differentiation differ in the degree of their stability. In relatively stable societies, social differentiation is more or less clearly defined, transparent, and reflects the well-known algorithm of its functioning. In a changing society, social differentiation is diffuse, difficult to predict, the algorithms for its functioning are hidden or not defined.

The behavior of an individual is largely determined by the factor of social inequality, which in society is ranked, stratified according to different systems, grounds or indicators:

social background;

Ethnic background;

Level of education;

Positions;

professional affiliation;

income and wealth;

Lifestyle.

Social inequality - This is a type of social division in which individual members of a society or group are at different levels of the social ladder (hierarchy) and have unequal opportunities, rights and obligations.

Main indicators of inequality:

• different levels of access to resources, both physical and moral (for example, women in Ancient Greece, who were not allowed to participate in the Olympic Games);
• various working conditions.

Causes of social inequality.

The French sociologist Émile Durkheim deduced two causes of social inequality:

1. The need to encourage the best in their field, that is, those who bring great benefits to society.
2. Different levels of personal qualities and talent in people.

Robert Michels put forward another reason: the protection of the privileges of power. When the size of the community exceeds a certain number of people, they put forward a leader, or a whole group, and give him more authority than everyone else.

12. The stratification of society

Inequality between people exists in any society. This is quite natural, given that all people have differences, and it is just as impossible to make them equal as it is impossible to make everyone the same externally and internally. Even with the same income, some live economically, while others experience a constant shortage of funds. Absolute equality is a dream that allows one to hope that a society of complete social justice will one day be built.

People have repeatedly made attempts to build a socially just society. Almost constantly, with varying intensity, there is a struggle between the rich and the poor. Sectors with low and middle incomes do not want to put up with the fact that a significant part of social wealth belongs to a narrow circle of people, so they are trying to eliminate the existing injustice.

The greed of the rich, their unwillingness to share funds with the rest of society - this is one of the reasons leading to unbridled stratification. Bloody revolutions, change of political regimes - these are the consequences of the indifferent attitude of the "elite" to ordinary people, to those who actually create all material wealth, receiving little in return.

At the moment, it has not been possible to achieve social justice in society. Not a single revolution was able to eliminate inequality, and after any of them stratification arose again, the spiral of the class hierarchy twisted in a new way, accumulating energy for the next social upheavals.

Significant inequality polarizes society, perpetuates social injustice, making some masters of life and eternal executors (slaves) of others. Inequality is accompanied by poverty, which creates fertile ground for the marginalization of the population, inciting a person to join criminal communities, extremist, terrorist organizations. It is because of poverty that people often fall under bad influence, follow where they promise quick earnings and a good life.

It seems that the easiest way to eliminate inequality, to take and equally share all public wealth. But how then to evaluate the work of an idler and a hardworking person, how to encourage the best? This question should not be looked for simple solutions. Achieving equality among people is not easy, if only because there are too many reasons due to which there is a stratification among people. A civilized approach does not consist in striving to completely eradicate the causes of inequality, but in fighting so that it does not take on excessive, depressing forms.

The emergence of inequality in society can be explained by:

• natural differences between people;
• social and public factors;
• features of the social and state structure.

1. Natural differences between people (differences due to the natural data of a person)

All people differ in their possession:

• mental abilities, talents;
• entrepreneurial skills;
• knowledge and experience;
• moral, value orientations;
• physical, external data.

Mental capacity help a person in any activity. They allow you to acquire knowledge, help you solve problems, find non-standard solutions, make discoveries, and develop the right behavior strategy. All this contributes to the material well-being of a person and the appearance of inequality.

Talented people have unequal opportunities compared to the rest. If their unique natural talents are in demand by society, and not wasted, then they achieve success and recognition.

Entrepreneurial ability include a set of qualities, skills that allow a person to find opportunities for profit while engaging in any type of activity, make reasonable consistent decisions, create and apply innovations, and take acceptable, justified risk. Entrepreneurial skills are to some extent related to mental abilities, but still have some differences. These additionally include the ability to communicate, establish relationships, establish contacts with people and maintain relationships with them. There is also an entrepreneurial instinct that allows a person to intuitively make the right decisions.

Knowledge and experience important in any business. An experienced person has undeniable advantages over a person who for the first time decides on a new business for himself. Without experience and knowledge, it is easy to make mistakes. It takes time to accumulate experience, and during this period a person often acts recklessly, acting "at random". However, it is much more rational to study the knowledge gained by other people. This will avoid many wrong actions.

In the modern world, moral attitudes do not help, but, on the contrary, interfere with earning big money. Positive moral qualities do not allow the use of dishonest methods for enrichment. Those who use such techniques usually win. However, to create an equal competitive environment, where everyone succeeds with their skills and abilities, and not with cunning and deceit, compliance with moral rules is a necessary condition.

External Data play a significant role in life. It is easier for a beautiful person to achieve greater success with the opposite sex, it is easier to successfully marry, marry, and also get a job where external data matters.

Physical Data allow a person to feel good, work without significant stress. Lack of physical data can become a limitation for work in some areas. It can be hard for a person with poor health or a disabled person to work, even at the easiest job.

Alas, in modern society, cases are not uncommon showing that the advantages described above do not work. So, situations arise in teams when, in the general mass of employees, the smartest, most talented person is "overwritten", they do not give him the opportunity to open up, show himself to the fullest. Often, management fears smart, responsible employees, assuming that they can take their place.

2. Inequality due to social and social factors:

• having unequal opportunities at birth;
• different levels of education;
• gender inequality;
• inequality due to age;
• inequality by nationality, race;
• inequality in place of residence;
• inequality due to family composition;
• possession of a profitable profession, position;
• a fortunate combination of circumstances conducive to the enrichment of a person.

Possession of unequal opportunities at birth

A child born in a family of wealthy parents has more opportunities. His parents can afford to hire tutors for individual lessons, pay for classes in circles, sports sections, take care of the child's leisure. Financial resources are a guarantee of good education and full development. Of course, all this is true if parents really care about their children and their future, and are not preoccupied with demonstrating their own superiority, turning a child into an obligatory attribute of personal success.

Material possibilities dictate the way of life, create the illusion that one has only to wish, how everything will be fulfilled. In rich families, the problem associated with a lack of love and attention is very common. People busy with work, satisfaction of personal ambitions, deprive children of the most necessary thing - communication in the family. A child locked in a "golden cage" narrows the social circle, he becomes a stranger to peers from less wealthy families.

In low-income families, children are sometimes deprived of the most necessary: ​​good nutrition, quality clothing, normal living conditions. But it happens that difficulties do not always act negatively, sometimes they temper, teach to fight, to defend one's own position. As a result, a person adapts better to living conditions, gets used to achieving everything on his own, without relying on anyone.

The division of people into classes based on their origin is wrong. A person from a poor family who has received an education, has shown diligence and has gone through several levels of the social hierarchy, can be much better than a person with wealth from birth, devoid of understanding how difficult it is to achieve a high social position.

Different level of education

The lack of education in modern society is seen as a serious disadvantage that creates obstacles to employment. Even for unskilled positions, the employer prefers to hire a person with an education, because it raises labor discipline and cultural level. Uneducated people are more likely to work in less profitable sectors of the economy and are almost always in lower positions, resulting in low incomes.

The ongoing penetration into all spheres of life of computer science, electronics, technology makes new demands on modern workers, increases the demand for qualified, educated specialists. Now a person is required to have a high level of knowledge, the ability to learn quickly, assimilate new information, etc.

gender inequality

Biological differences between men and women create an insurmountable barrier to eliminating gender inequality. To overcome differences completely, for example, a woman will have to become as strong as a man, and a man will have to learn how to bear children. Differences between the sexes are manifested in thinking, temperament, perception, psyche, etc.

A woman will not be able to work in many male professions, especially where required physical strength, and the man - in women's. The division of professions by gender is quite natural. So, it is rare to meet a woman who wants to work as a loader, bricklayer, security guard or driver. It is also difficult to find a male caregiver, a nanny, a nurse, a seamstress, etc.

Society evaluates women's and men's labor differently. For some reason, women's professions are usually low-paid, even for the same job as a man, a woman often receives a lower salary. Perhaps this is because low wages for women are not seen as a serious problem, since it is assumed that most of them should be supported by the spouse. But this deprives women of independence and does not take into account the fact that, in fact, most of them do not receive any support from men.

The birth of a child by a woman is an obstacle to building a career. A woman drops out of work for some period, taking on a significant amount of unpaid, unappreciated homework. Burdened with children, she is simply forced to devote a significant part of her time to the house.

The structure of modern society is still very patriarchal: as a rule, men are engaged in highly paid and prestigious work. In countries with a low standard of living, low literacy and education, the most important source of employment for women remains Agriculture or other work with a predominance of physical labor. In developed countries, women have the opportunity to study and work. They are more employed in health care, education, and other areas related to intellectual activity.

The double standard in relation to women is determined by traditions, customs, family values, existing ethics and morality. Gender inequality harms the entire society and negatively affects economic development. Countries where women enjoy equal rights are more developed and prosperous.

Inequality due to age

At each age, a person has different learning abilities, different creative and physical activity. It is not necessary to expect from an elderly person that he will be the same as a young one. Due to physiological changes with age, it becomes harder to absorb and remember information, harder to work. This is largely due to the negative attitude of employers towards people of pre-retirement age.

Young people also have problems with employment. A young man, a recent graduate of an educational institution, finds it difficult to find a job due to lack of experience. It turns out vicious circle when there is no experience and nowhere to acquire it. Some employers discriminate against young people, pay lower wages than older employees, believing that they must first earn equal treatment. If society is aimed at the future, at development, then young people should integrate as quickly as possible into adult working life on equal terms. A person at a young age wants to earn money, live well, start a family, this requires significant funds.

Inequality by nationality, race

Apparently, the remnants of the slave system have not yet been completely eliminated, if people of a different nationality, race are limited in their choice of work and are forced to go to low-paid, hard labour, change residence, country in search of a better life. Integration into normal life in another country may take more than one decade, and all this time there will be obstacles to equal membership in society, especially if there are external differences, poor knowledge of local traditions, language.

But it's not just migrants who face challenges. Modern migration flows are gaining such strength that the population historically residing in a given territory may be in an unequal position, in the minority. National diasporas and clans defend their interests, ignoring the laws adopted in society, create the environment they need, frankly ousting the indigenous population from some areas of activity.

An employer who hires a migrant who is willing to work for "penny" harms, first of all, his fellow citizens, depriving them of employment opportunities. An excess number of migrants leads to a drop in wages in some sectors of the economy. When cheap labor is available, there is no need to improve production processes to increase labor productivity.

Inequality by place of residence

Discrimination at the place of residence is associated with unequal access to educational, medical and other services, with the inability to find a job in the specialty. This is clearly seen in cities, where there is only one city-forming enterprise, or in rural areas, where the range of occupations is limited to agriculture.

An obstacle to moving a person to more prosperous regions can be a lack of funds, lack of housing, unwillingness to part with loved ones. If a person decides to change the country of residence, then there will be additional difficulties in obtaining citizenship.

An ordinary person is not to blame for the fact that he was born, grew up and lives in a depressed region or country, that his social status is predetermined by unequal territorial opportunities.

The state itself differentiates the regions, establishing differences between them. People for equal work, depending on the region, receive different wages. Such differences can be justified only if there is an urgent need to attract the missing specialists, or as compensation for difficult climatic conditions. In all other cases, discrimination of people by place of residence cannot be justified in any way.

Possession of a profitable profession, position

Usually young people want to learn and get one of the prestigious professions in order to be in demand, highly paid specialists in the future. But this is not always possible to achieve for various reasons, one of them is unequal access to educational services. A person who is capable by nature can study at a school with "weak" teachers. As a result, his abilities will remain undiscovered by anyone.

Big difference in wages individual professions creates social inequality. The overvaluation of some of them leads to a significant difference in salaries by dozens of times, in relation to the average earnings of all other workers. The criteria for such differentiation are unclear. Indeed, with the appropriate organization of training, it is possible to fill the deficit of any specialists within a few years, or even months. Only a person with unique abilities and talents really deserves a high assessment of society, including in material terms. However, there are relatively few such people.

Managers have the highest salaries today. A manager, even a middle manager, can receive a salary equal to the salary of a small team. Is his contribution to the work so significant? Probably not. It’s just that such a system has developed in which it is quite legal, the appropriation of the results of social labor has become commonplace, which manifests itself in the form of inflated payments administrative staff. Otherwise, as legalized theft, this state of affairs cannot be called. A doctor who saves lives or a scientist who conducts important research receives a meager monetary reward compared to directors large companies, whose salaries can support entire organizations. The benefits of the activities of the leadership are not comparable with their income, in addition, it should be taken into account that the appointment to leadership positions is not always done in an honest, open way.

Inequality due to family composition

Let's take a family of two as an example. They are successful and make good money together. They can be attributed to the notorious middle class. At some point, they decide to have a baby. After a certain period of time, a woman goes on maternity leave, family incomes decrease. With the advent of a child, expenses increase, which further reduces the standard of living of the family. As a result, the middle class family will move closer to the less wealthy segments of the population. But what if there are already several children in the family?

To ensure the average per capita income of the middle class for a family of four or five people, the head of the family will have to work hard, losing health, sacrificing personal time, life. The situation is even worse when a woman is a single mother, deprived of support. Her social position is very precarious and almost always borders on poverty.

A fortunate combination of circumstances that contribute to the enrichment of a person

It's rare to win the lottery, but it does happen. A person can become a millionaire in an instant. Chance plays a big role in our life. Even many scientific discoveries were made completely by accident.

Some people are always in search of their soulmate and cannot find it in any way, they change jobs all their lives in search of more money and cannot earn anything. In contrast, others immediately get a good job, earn decent money, get married and live with one person all their lives. Here, luck plays a significant role. Winning the lottery, receiving an inheritance, unexpected success in business - all these events are of a random nature and have a noticeable impact on a person's life.

An active life position will help to increase the likelihood of a successful combination of circumstances, because, as you know, water does not flow under a lying stone.

3. Inequality generated by the peculiarities of the social and state structure

The inequality associated with the existence of the state is expressed:

• the need to maintain a hierarchy;
• in possession of material values, property;
• in belonging to a certain group of persons, parties, diaspora, sects, etc. ;

Hierarchy in the state

In any control system there is a certain hierarchy, there are control centers and transmission links through which a separate object or objects is managed. When the hierarchy is eliminated, the system will be destroyed as a single integral structure.

In the state, the hierarchy is expressed in the form of the presence of branches of power and structures that perform the functions of management, execution and control in society. Power by its very existence creates inequality between those who have it and those who do not. It is not possible to eliminate such inequality, otherwise, the state itself will have to be destroyed.

The need to maintain control in society gives rise to the division of people into classes:

• managers, directly to whom the power belongs;
• people close to power, i.e. officials called to control and execute the will of the authorities;
• people protecting the authorities: the police, other law enforcement agencies;
• people occupying a privileged position in society, thanks to their position, wealth;
• ordinary people: workers, employees, intellectuals, who perform the main work of maintaining and servicing the entire state system.

People with public authority have special powers through which they can influence any organization, which puts them in the hierarchy above any head of a commercial company. Big business, realizing this, tries to bring into power structures the people he needs, organizes the defense of his interests. The merging of business and power is a problem of modern society, leading to the fact that a relatively small layer of the richest people begins to have full power, acting in purely personal interests, not paying attention to the opinion of the majority, putting proprietary interests above state ones.

Possession of wealth, property

The possession of the means of production, financial assets, and other types of property is one of the sources of social inequality between people. Property can be obtained by inheritance, gift, acquired with personal or borrowed funds, seized by force or through financial fraud.

Property, properly disposed of, is capable of generating profit for its owners. The money that is in circulation creates new money and makes those who possess it even richer, increasing social stratification.

Under the capitalist system, capital tends to be concentrated in a relatively small stratum of society - the financial elite. The concentration of significant resources in one hand creates an obstacle to the realization of the abilities of other people. Most of the society is forced to work for already successful people. Ordinary people are partly deprived of opportunities to realize their professional preferences, because for the organization own business they may not have enough funds, and it is very difficult to break into already occupied market niches. And yet, sometimes, an ordinary person manages to start his own business and successfully develop it.

In any field of activity, success is helped by several factors, among which the personal qualities of a person and a successful combination of external circumstances are especially significant. Having accumulated some funds, the owner of his own business seeks to expand it in order to feel more confident. Having reached a certain level in business, he joins a special privileged part of society. People with financial resources have significant opportunities, carry out managerial functions. They can set up businesses, hire workers, set wages. The owners of large commercial companies have a significant impact on the economy, on the lives of ordinary people.

The class of owners tries to fix its exclusive position in society by creating special living conditions for itself. Accumulated wealth is passed down from generation to generation, creating inequality regardless of human ability.

Belonging to a certain group of persons

A group of people, united by some common interests, is able to accumulate forces and means to maintain its existence. Adjacency of a person to a group promises him certain benefits. In case of life problems, there will be someone to turn to for help. The simplest and most famous example of a group of people is a family. It is in it, most often, that a person finds spiritual and material support.

Belonging to a political party, to a religious sect, or even to a criminal organization are all examples of groups that people usually belong to. They assist their members in advancing career ladder assist in business. This is done with the expectation that, in the future, from a successful person it will be possible to receive any dividends for the rest of the group.

Ways to eliminate inequality

1. It is impossible to eliminate the causes of inequality due to internal and external differences between people. It is unfair to reduce everything to a simple "leveling", not paying attention to personal achievements and results. People who work better should earn more, this is quite logical. But it should be understood that no matter how unique talents a person possesses, he is in demand only because he lives in society. Without society, none of us could express ourselves, realize our abilities.

What would a person do with his talents if he suddenly found himself alone in a dense forest or on a desert island? Surely he would have waged a constant struggle for his existence, trying to simply survive. The usual comfort will disappear from his life, there will be no things that people use every day without much thought. Any disease will become extremely dangerous when there are no doctors and medicines nearby. In such a situation, the maximum that a person can achieve is to build modest housing and create tools similar to those used in the Stone Age. No matter how hard he tries, he alone cannot do what people achieve by living in society.

The above example shows the existence of a person's dependence on society and suggests that the merits of individuals should not be overestimated. Everything that modern civilization has achieved is the product of the joint creation of many people, over several generations, and even very capable people should not be allowed to live in luxury, since they would not be able to prove themselves outside of society.

Money has never played a decisive role in the development of society. Many scientists and researchers were driven forward, first of all, by curiosity and the desire to understand the truth, and not by the desire to profit. Not money and wages are incentives for learning, getting something new, but a person's natural interest in everything unknown, the desire for knowledge, for understanding the world around him.

2. In a civilized society, there must be a system that provides control over people's income and expenses. This must be done in order to have an understanding of the origin of the funds, confidence that they were not obtained in any dishonest way. The excess of expenses over income indicates the receipt of money from unrecorded sources, and their origin should be explained. In principle, total control is not needed, it is quite enough to check what funds are used to make large purchases, especially luxury goods.

Control over income will help to avoid the existence of a shadow, unofficial labor market in the state, where relations between the employer and the employee are not regulated by law, and where it is impossible to determine the employment of a person, his income. Such a phenomenon as a salary "in an envelope" is an example of the unfair distribution of money and deception of the state. Additionally, control will help identify leaders who use their official position for personal enrichment.

The desire of a person to earn money is beneficial to society, since it constantly needs active people interested in their own well-being. Monetary reward helps to additionally motivate a person to achieve high performance in work. When money is earned by honest labor, and not acquired by deceit, then this is beneficial to the person himself and society.

3. The state is obliged to smooth out the difference in income between the lowest paid and highest paid segments of the population. It is unacceptable when some make ends meet, while others do not know where else to spend their money. In no case should the difference in incomes reach significant sizes, otherwise, it negatively affects the whole society. When a significant difference between the incomes of citizens is reached, the problem of inequality becomes acute. The state is obliged to provide support to socially unprotected segments of the population, people with low incomes, and, even better, to act proactively and prevent the emergence of a category of needy citizens.

Today, money has begun to define the face of power. The richest are people who are in power, close to her or serving her interests. Social justice will not be achieved in the state until it ceases to act in accordance with the will of people who have big money, does not begin to make and implement decisions that are beneficial to the whole society.

4. Equal access to educational services, regardless of social origin, place of residence, etc., will enable a person to reveal his abilities. Lack of equal access actually means perpetuating economic, social and cultural inequalities.

A prerequisite for maintaining equality in education is the availability of free education at all its levels, the creation of a sufficient number of places in educational institutions so that everyone who wants to learn can realize their preferences. The only obstacle to getting an education can be an incorrect assessment of one's own capabilities by the person himself, the lack of sufficient physical and mental data necessary for training in the chosen profession. However, in a quality education system, abilities are identified, and training in accordance with them is recommended.

The state, which invests in education, invests in human capital, makes society more cultural and developed.

5. It is very difficult to eliminate social inequality as long as laws are preserved in society that allow one to inherit material values ​​without any restrictions. Through inheritance, a person from a wealthy family will have clear advantages from birth.

To eliminate this cause of inequality, it is necessary to work out measures that limit the amount of inherited property and Money. The motive for the accumulation of wealth for children and grandchildren, as an incentive to increase savings, must be gradually destroyed. Such measures will ensure social justice and an equal start for young people, regardless of who their parents were.

6. The structure of the economic structure in any country is heterogeneous. There are highly profitable industries associated with mining, trade, IT, etc., and there are industries that, by definition, will never be able to make a profit (education, medicine, science). Without redistribution of financial resources in the state, organizations performing social functions, cannot exist. The work of a teacher or a doctor is no less important than the work of an oilman, gasman or programmer. In order to avoid injustice, the state should monitor the amount of wages in different sectors of the economy and equalize it as much as possible.

7. Fair pay implies that people get paid for the same job equal pay. This is possible if the organization has adopted a transparent, open system that reflects the income of each employee. However, today it is not customary to declare one's own income, which is explained by the existing injustice in the distribution of funds. If everything was without deceit, then there would be nothing to hide. Today, very often people, working in the same team, doing the same work, receive different salaries.

Employers contribute to the maintenance of inequality by creating an atmosphere of secrecy. The true purpose of such behavior is to save on employees, to extract the maximum benefit for yourself. They take into account the psychology of people, realizing that someone may agree to work for less money.

A civilized approach is to ensure that all people working in the same team know the income of their colleagues. Then it will become clear how fair the remuneration is, and whether it corresponds to the real return from each individual person.

Of course, the work of people who contribute more to the common cause should be valued higher, but this difference should not differ significantly. It should be borne in mind that the result of labor in a team is of a social nature.

To prevent the stratification of people, it is necessary to ensure a fair distribution of profits received in the organization, and to eliminate a significant difference in income between managers and subordinates.

8. If uncontrolled migration processes occur in any country, then it has internal sources instabilities that contribute to the uncontrolled movement of people. Usually people do not leave their homeland because of a good life. For most of them, migration is a forced necessity, an attempt to escape from wars, violence, hunger, poverty, etc.

Countries that receive migrants have the responsibility of integrating newcomers into society. Provision of housing, teaching the language, professions are costly activities. Funds for all this are taken from the budget, which means they are taken from local residents. The manifestation of humanism is certainly a good thing, but not a single economically developed country will be able to accept everyone who wants to come to it, to shelter disadvantaged people from all over the world. Mass migration is a negative phenomenon, and it is necessary to fight not with the consequences, but with the causes that cause it.

To reduce migration flows, it is necessary to: prevent military conflicts, overcome backwardness in the cultural and educational spheres, and eliminate economic inequality between countries.

9. In any organization there are always people who perform managerial functions. They occupy a special position in society, because of this, inequality arises. To eliminate it, there is one universal recipe, it is necessary to ensure a periodic change of leaders.

The principle of turnover of leadership may well be applied nationwide. The turnover of the managerial staff creates conditions for ensuring social mobility and implies the movement of people from one social group to another.

At work, bosses must periodically replace each other, in the state - politicians, and all this must be taken as a mandatory rule to maintain social justice. To ensure that incapable or mercenary people do not get into leadership positions, it is necessary to conduct a thorough selection, first of all, according to the moral and mental qualities of a person.

10. It is very difficult to eliminate inequalities completely. Therefore, people need to educate an adequate perception of it. Condemn extreme manifestations of inequality, flaunting wealth, luxury. One should not measure the success of a person solely by the possession of material values ​​and prosperity. The real wealth of a person is his intellect and moral qualities. People should be aware of the exceptional value of human life, and that no things can be compared with it in value.

diary

capital deception

Money in the morning, chairs in the evening. This option still seems acceptable, compared to what modern officials offer us: money - today, and a service - in a few years. Doesn't this look like a scam?

About housing and communal services

In Russia, the annual increase in tariffs for housing and communal services has already become commonplace. The need for this is due to the fact that service companies and resource providers need to compensate for losses from inflation.