The Great Industrial Revolution, the achievements and problems of which will be discussed in the article, began in England (mid-18th century) and gradually embraced the entire world civilization. It led to the mechanization of production, the growth of the economy and the creation of a modern industrial society. The topic is covered in the eighth grade history course and will be useful to both students and parents.

Basic concept

A detailed definition of the concept can be seen in the picture above. It was first used by French economist Adolphe Blanqui in 1830. The theory was developed by the Marxists and Arnold Toynbee (English historian). The industrial revolution is not evolutionary process, associated with the emergence of new machines based on scientific and technical discoveries (some already existed at the beginning of the 18th century), and a massive transition to a new organization of labor - machine production in large factories, which replaced the manual labor of manufactories.

There are other definitions of this phenomenon in the books, including the industrial revolution. It applies to the initial stage of the revolution, during which they are distinguished by three:

• Industrial revolution: the emergence of a new industry - mechanical engineering and the creation of a steam engine (from the middle of the 18th century to the first half of the 19th century).
• Organization of in-line production through the use of chemicals and electricity (from the second half of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century). The stage was first identified by David Landis.
• Use in the production of information and communication technologies (from the end of the 20th century to the present). There is no consensus in science about the third stage.

Industrial revolution (industrial revolution): basic prerequisites

For the organization of factory production, a number of conditions are necessary, the main of which are:

• Availability work force- dispossessed people.
• The possibility of selling goods (sales markets).
• The existence of rich people with money savings.

These conditions were formed first of all in England, where the bourgeoisie came to power after the revolution of the 17th century. The seizure of land from the peasants and the ruin of the artisans in fierce competition with the manufactories created a huge army of destitute people in need of work. The migration of former farmers to the cities led to a weakening of subsistence farming. If the villagers themselves produced clothes and utensils for themselves, then the townspeople were forced to buy them. Goods were also exported abroad, as sheep breeding was well developed in the country. In the hands of the bourgeoisie profits accumulated from the slave trade, the robbery of the colonies and the export of wealth from India. The Industrial Revolution (the transition from manual labor to machine labor) became a reality thanks to a number of serious inventions.

Spinning production

The industrial revolution first affected the cotton industry, the most developed in the country. The stages of its mechanization can be seen in the presented table.

Edmund Cartwright improved the loom (1785), because the weavers could no longer process as much yarn as they produced in the factories of England. A 40-fold increase in productivity is the best proof that the industrial revolution has arrived. Achievements and problems (table) will be presented in the article. They are associated with the need to invent a special propulsion force that does not depend on the proximity of water.

steam engine

The search for a new source of energy was important not only in but also in the mining industry, where the work was especially hard. Already in 1711, an attempt was made to create a steam pump with a piston and a cylinder, into which water was injected. This was the first serious attempt to use steam. The author of an improved steam engine in 1763 was In 1784, the first double-acting steam engine used in a spinning mill was patented. The introduction of patents made it possible to protect the copyright of inventors, which contributed to their motivation for new achievements. Without this step, the industrial revolution would hardly have been possible.

Achievements and challenges (table shown in the picture below) show that steam engine contributed to the industrial revolution in the development of transport. The appearance of the first steam locomotives on smooth rails is associated with the name of George Stephenson (1814), who personally operated a 33-car train in 1825 on the first railway for citizens in history. Its 30 km route connected Stockton and Darlington. By the middle of the century, all of England was surrounded by a net railways. A little earlier, an American working in France tested the first steamboat (1803).

Advances in mechanical engineering

In the table above, one should highlight the achievement without which the industrial revolution would have been impossible - the transition from manufactory to factory. This invention lathe for cutting nuts and screws. Henry Maudsley, a mechanic from England, made a breakthrough in the development of industry, in fact, creating new industry- mechanical engineering (1798-1800). In order to provide machine tools for factory workers, machines must be created to produce other machines. Soon appeared planer and milling machines(1817, 1818). Mechanical engineering contributed to the development of metallurgy and mining hard coal, which allowed England to flood other countries with cheap manufactured goods. For this she received the name "workshop of the world."

Collective work with the development of machine tool industry has become a necessity. A new type of worker has emerged - one who performs only one operation and is not able to produce the finished product from start to finish. There was a separation of intellectual forces from physical labor, which led to the emergence of qualified specialists who formed the basis of the middle class. The industrial revolution is not only a technical aspect, but also serious social consequences.

Social Consequences

The main result of the industrial revolution is the creation of an industrial society. It is characterized by:

• Personal freedom of citizens.
• Market relations.
• Technical modernization.
• The new structure of society (the predominance of urban residents, class stratification).
• Competition.

New technical possibilities appeared (transport, communications), which improved the quality of life of people. But in the pursuit of profit, the bourgeoisie was looking for ways to reduce the cost of labor, which led to the widespread use of the labor of women and children. Society split into two opposing classes: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

The ruined peasants and artisans could not get a job due to a lack of jobs. They considered the machines that replaced their labor to be the culprits, so the movement against machine tools gained momentum. The workers smashed the equipment of the factories, which marked the beginning of the class struggle against the exploiters. The growth of banks and the increase in capital imported into England at the beginning of the 19th century led to the low solvency of other countries, which caused a crisis of overproduction in 1825. These are the consequences of the industrial revolution.

Achievements and challenges (table): results of the industrial revolution

The table about industrial revolutions (achievements and problems) will be incomplete without taking into account the foreign policy aspect. For most of the 19th century, England's economic dominance was undeniable. She dominated the world trading market which has developed rapidly. At the first stage, only France competed with it thanks to the targeted policy of Napoleon Bonaparte. unevenness economic development countries can be seen in the picture below.

The second stage of the revolution: the emergence of monopolies

The technical achievements of the second stage are presented above (see picture No. 4). Chief among them: the invention of new means of communication (telephone, radio, telegraph), the internal combustion engine and the furnace for steel smelting. The emergence of new energy sources is associated with the discovery of oil fields. This made it possible for the first time to create a car on a gasoline engine (1885). Chemistry came to the service of man, thanks to which strong synthetic materials began to be created.

For new industries (for the development of oil fields, for example), significant capital was required. The process of their concentration has intensified through the merger of companies, as well as their merging with banks, whose role has increased significantly. Monopolies appear - powerful enterprises that control both production and marketing of products. They were created by the industrial revolutions. Achievements and problems (table will be presented below) are associated with the consequences of the emergence of monopoly capitalism. are shown in the picture.

Consequences of the second stage of the industrial revolution

The uneven development of countries and the emergence of large corporations led to wars for the redivision of the world, the capture of markets and new sources of raw materials. During the period from 1870 to 1955 there were twenty serious military conflicts. A huge number of countries were involved in the two world wars. The creation of international monopolies led to the economic division of the world under the dominance of the financial oligarchy. Instead of exporting goods large corporations began to export capital, creating production in countries with cheap labor. Within countries, monopolies dominate, ruining and absorbing smaller enterprises.

But the industrial revolutions also bring a lot of positive things. Achievements and problems (the table is presented in the last subheading) of the second stage is mastering the results of scientific and technical discoveries, creating a developed infrastructure of society, and adapting to new living conditions. Monopoly capitalism is the most developed form of the capitalist mode of production, in which all the contradictions and problems of the bourgeois system are most fully manifested.

Results of the second stage

Industrial Revolution: Achievements and Challenges (table)

The industrial revolution, the achievements and problems of which are presented in two tables (based on the results of the first and second stages), - greatest achievement civilization. The transition to factory production was accompanied by technological progress. However, the risk of military and environmental catastrophes requires that the development of modern technologies and the use of new energy sources be under the control of humanistic public institutions.

"Industrial Revolution" and its consequences"

• The beginning of the industrial revolution. Technical advances
• The birth of industrial society
• The end of the Industrial Revolution in England
• Economic development of England and France in the first half of the 19th century
• Features of economic development in the second half of the XIX century
• The role of the state in the economy
• Changes in the economies of the largest countries

industrial revolution

This is the transition from manual to machine labor, from manufactory to factory, which was observed in the leading Western powers of the 18th-19th centuries.

The main feature of the industrial revolution was industrialization - the transition from a predominantly agrarian economy to industrial production, which resulted in the transformation of an agrarian society into an industrial one.

• In 1733 the "Flying Shuttle" was invented.

(for making cloth)

• A few years later J. Hargreaves the famous jenny spinning wheel was invented

• In 1765 James Watt built a steam engine, and six years later improved it

An industrial society is a society formed in the process and as a result of industrialization, the development of machine production, the emergence of adequate forms of labor organization, and the application of the achievements of scientific and technological progress. It is characterized by mass, in-line production, mechanization and automation of labor, the development of the market for goods and services, and the humanization of social relations.

The birth of an industrial society

Industrial society received the most intensive development in modern times in England.

The birth of an industrial society

The formation of a layer of hired workers and the creation domestic market combined in England with the turbulent process of the so-called initial accumulation of capital.

• it is a set of assets used for making a profit. The direction of assets in the sphere of production or provision of services for the purpose of making a profit is also called capital investments or investments.
• it is income generating money

The birth of an industrial society

There is also an industrial proletariat - people working in factories. Their work was very difficult then. The working day lasted up to 18 hours a day, the salary was low. The invention of new machines led to mass layoffs, which caused outrage among workers.

Origin industrial society Luddism

The Luddites were a group of English workers who protested in the early 1800s against the changes that brought about the Industrial Revolution, who felt that their work was in danger. Often the protest was expressed in the destruction of machines. The destruction of machines (industrial sabotage) were declared capital offenses and 17 people were executed in 1813. Many people were sent to Australia.

The end of the Industrial Revolution in England

In the first half of the XIX century. The industrial revolution in England was completed. It was in this country that he acquired the most mature, classical forms of his development. The most receptive to new trends was light industry. This is due to the fact that only products necessary for the average consumer can give a quick profit. The machines and machines that manufacturers need do not bring profit until after some time.

England

Great Britain entered the 19th century in a state of extreme tension caused by continuous wars with France. Great Britain entered the 19th century in a state of extreme tension caused by continuous wars with France. Only the fear of an invasion from France, which united the nation, helped to withstand the terrible tension of the war. The continental blockade imposed by Napoleon sharply raised food prices, which gave rise to "hunger riots".

Economic development of England and France in the first half of the 19th century

England

The victory over Napoleon in 1815 ended the continental blockade, but it created new problems. Up to half a million people were dismissed from the army and navy. Cheap European grain began to arrive in England. The fall in prices gave rise to a panic that seized not only farmers, but also the aristocracy - landlords. In 1815, the "corn laws" were adopted, in fact, the import of bread into the country was prohibited. As a result, the price of bread skyrocketed. Despite significant difficulties, the accelerated development of industry and Agriculture continued in England.

Economic development of England and France in the first half of the 19th century

France

The economic development of another leading Western European country - France in the first half of the XIX century. also progressed well. In the first decade of the XIX century. French industry grew by more than 50%. The development of the economy was facilitated by the influx of money and valuables from the conquered countries. But the defeat in the fight against the anti-French coalition dealt a serious blow to the French economy, from which she managed to recover quite quickly. During the reign of the Bourbons in industry manual labor continued to be replaced by a machine. The number of factories and factories grew.

Economic development of England and France in the first half of the 19th century

France

By the end of the first half of the XIX century. the factory type of production was the leader in ferrous metallurgy and was intensively introduced into mechanical engineering. From 1825 to 1847 volume industrial production increased by 2/3. New industries developed rapidly, especially the chemical industry.

In the second half of the XIX century. the economy of the advanced countries of Europe is again undergoing changes. These changes are associated with the birth of monopolies.

Monopoly is a large capitalist enterprise that controls the production and marketing of one or more types of products; This is a structure in which there is no competition in the market and only one firm operates. It produces a unique, unparalleled product and is protected from new firms entering the market.

19th century

Monopoly

Syndicate

Concern

Trust

Cartel

Syndicate

is an association of independent enterprises of any industry, based on an agreement on the joint sale of goods. The syndicate is created with the aim of ensuring monopoly dominance in the market, setting monopoly prices and obtaining the highest profit.

Concern a large association of enterprises connected by common interests, contracts, capital, participation in joint activities. Often such a group of enterprises is united around a strong parent company (holding company, parent company), which holds the shares of these enterprises in its hands.

Trust- this is a form of association in which the merging enterprises lose their independence and are subject to a single management. The owners of enterprises included in the trust are deprived of the right to dispose of them directly.

Cartel may provide for the establishment of mandatory minimum prices for goods for all participants, the delimitation of sales areas, the determination of the total volume of production or sales and the share of each participant in it.

Features of economic development in the second half 19th century

The emergence of monopolies was caused by progress in technology, the complication production process. It required more and more capital, as machines and raw materials became more and more expensive. Therefore, entrepreneurs began to unite. This association was accelerated economic crises .

Features of economic development in the second half of the XIX century

The first such crisis occurred in England as early as 1825. In 1858, the first world economic crisis. After the world economic crisis 1873 begins the process of development of cartels, which, however, quickly disintegrated. A new phenomenon was the emergence international cartels in the mining, chemical, metallurgical, electrical and other industries.

The role of the state in the economy

First half of the 19th century

Government intervention in the economy has been drastically reduced. According to bankers, owners industrial enterprises, the role of the state was to be limited only to the protection general conditions, favorable to the development of the economic life of the country (means of communication, means of communication, maintaining the stability of monetary circulation), and the protection of their external interests.

The role of the state in the economy

Second half of the 19th century

The role of the state in the management of the colonies is growing, and the winning country of the war is receiving huge military indemnities. old state enterprises are still preserved, primarily in the military field, but are already losing their former significance. Only transport and roads, which are of an important strategic nature, remain in the possession of the state. The strongest influence of the state on the economy was in Germany. Here the nationalization of the railways took place, a tobacco monopoly was introduced.

The role of the state in the economy

By the beginning of the twentieth century, there splice largest

monopolies with state apparatus .

State officials headed the monopoly associations. In some cases, monopolies are endowed with functions state power. Often state and private monopolies were intertwined.

France

France finally turned into a country of monopoly capital in the early twentieth century. During these years, there was a rapid increase in the concentration of production, an increase in monopolies and their strengthening. In 1897, an economic upsurge began in the country, which covered all branches of industrial production, especially metallurgical.

Changes in the economies of the largest countries

England

Legalized trade unions (trade unions), giving them the status legal entity and judicial protection of their funds. The work of children under 10 years of age in production was prohibited. In 1891, a law on free primary education was passed.

• Basovskaya N.I. England and France in the international life of Western Europe in the 12th-15th centuries. // Middle Ages. - M., 1988.
• Manfred A.Z. Europe during the Napoleonic Wars // Brief World History. - Book. 1. - M., 1967. - S. 364-378.
• V.V. Artemov, Yu.N. Lubchenkov HISTORY for secondary specialized education. - M., 2010. - S. 202 - 207.

• Bartenev S.A. History of Economic Thought. - M.: Infra-M, 2000. - 455 p.
• Kovalev A.M. Laws of history and appearance modern world- M.: PRIOR, 2003 - 401 p.

In the nineteenth century completed the formation of an industrial civilization, largely the result of scientific discoveries and industrial revolution. concept industrial revolution (or industrial revolution) covers a set of technical, technological, social, institutional and other changes associated with the replacement of manual labor by machine production.

The first country to apply a new method (based on the use of machines and industrial technologies) in industrial production was Great Britain, in which the "old order" gave way already in the 17th century. a place for parliamentarism and civil equality. The example of this country shows that the most important prerequisite for the industrial revolution is liberal socio-political transformations that affirm the principles of civil equality, economic freedom, inviolability of the person and property. An equally significant prerequisite for the industrial revolution is the high productivity of agriculture due to the so-called agrarian revolution. The agrarian revolution consisted in the transition from extensive to intensive farming methods, which ensured its productivity and profitability. Great Britain was also the birthplace of the agrarian revolution, where “thanks to” the policy of enclosure (continuously carried out from the end of the 17th century and throughout the 18th century) profound changes took place in the production relations of agriculture, and a constant increase in agricultural productivity was observed. Geographical and natural-climatic factors also provided Great Britain with leadership in the industrial revolution. Thus, the country's insular position created for it "free" protection from destructive continental wars and cheap transport. The long coastline, natural bays and many navigable rivers removed dependence on land transport, whose underdevelopment retarded the growth of trade and industry. Sufficient reserves of coal in England contributed to the rapid transition of English metallurgy from charcoal to stone. This made it possible by the end of the eighteenth century. English metallurgy to come out on top in the world.

Thus, the necessary prerequisites for the industrial revolution is the causal relationship of geographic, natural-climatic and socio-political factors. Factors accelerating the industrial revolution are considered to be a free market for capital, labor and demographic growth.

In Great Britain, earlier than in other countries, the most important of the inventions in the cotton industry were made, which opened the era of the industrial revolution (the invention of the "flying shuttle", the creation of a spinning machine, the invention of Cartwright's loom). Full use of the advantages of machine production became possible after the invention of the universal steam engine by the London University mechanic James Watt (1782). The beginning of the use of steam energy in industrial production is the central event of the industrial revolution. In the future, steam engines were constantly improved.

Industrial revolutions in various industries followed like a chain reaction. The revolution that began in light industry put forward the task of increasing the mass of machines; to meet this demand, a lot of metal was required, which, in turn, caused a revolution in metallurgy and mechanical engineering; the increased mass of manufactured products (goods) required changes in transport. So, in the 80s. XVIII century The English engineer Symington built the world's first steamboat. In 1814, the Englishman J. Stephenson built the first steam locomotive. In 1825 under his leadership, a railway (56 km) was built in South-West England to transport coal. The steam locomotive "Rocket" designed by J. Stephenson marked the beginning of the "railway revolution" in Europe. At the end of the XIX - early. 20th century it was the turn of the so-called related industries: telegraph, telephone, radio. By the end of the Industrial Revolution, Great Britain had become the leading economic power.

The main consequences of the industrial revolution:

the emergence of factory production;

the birth of mechanical engineering;

lower prices for consumer goods;

market restructuring: not consumer demand shaped the development of production, but production pushed the expansion of markets and formed demand;

increased capital investment and the need for rapid turnover led to an increase in the working day and a reduction in wages;

the emergence of industrial crises - crises of overproduction;

the deterioration of the position of the working class and the beginning of social struggle;

accelerating the process of urbanization, changing the ratio between the urban and rural population.

The end of the 18th century went down in history under the banner of the industrial revolution. First, England, and then other European countries, gradually abandoned the usual use of manual labor, that is, manufactory production. The first looms, steam engines and other inventions appear. The era of the industrial revolution begins, the transition from manufactories to factories and plants.

Preview

In the second swarm in the eighteenth century. in England pro-is-ho-dit ag-rar-naya re-vo-lu-tion. Pre-pri-ni-ma-tel-skoe farm-mer-farming economy you-tes-nya-et tra-di-tsi-on-noe peasant. This was due to the fact that practically all the land was in the hands of large prop-owners, some of them rented -wa-whether it is in rent-du fer-me-ram. Warehouse-dy-va-las si-ste-ma ka-pi-ta-li-sti-che-sky from-no-she-ny between land-lor-da-mi (vla-del-tsa-mi of the earth) , fer-me-ra-mi-aren-da-to-ra-mi and on-em-us-mi ra-bot-ni-ka-mi (ba-tra-ka-mi). This leads to an improvement in the quality of the land, the development of abandoned plots of land, in a way my culture tour (for livestock). After the ag-rar-noy re-in-lu-tion, many people in the village were left without work and means of subsistence. They went to the city, where they became-but-went-on-it-us-mi-ra-bot-no-ka-mi on industrial mouse-len-nyh pre-pri-i-ti-yah .

Pre-syllabus pro-mice-len-noy re-in-lu-tion
. Skop-le-nie ka-pi-ta-la in the hands of pre-pri-ni-ma-te-lei, merchants and banks-ki-ditch.
. The growth in the number of hired workers (the increase in the number of workers, in particular, was due to the ag-rar-noy re-in-lu-qi-ey).
. The development of trade-whether and the growth of cities.
. Is there a sales market in co-lo-no-yah.

The immediate cause of the chi-noy on-cha-la pro-mouse-len-noy re-in-lu-tion was the ra-zo-re-ing of English weavers in connection with importation to England de-she-th fabrics from India. In order to save their production of water and con-ku-ri-ro-vat with under-ro-gi-mi in-di-ski-mi fabrics-nya-mi, they needed -di-mo increase the pro-of-di-tel-ness of labor and reduce-sew for-expenditure. (cm. )

Events

1733- John Kay invented a me-ha-ni-che-sky (sa-mo-year-old) weaving machine.

1735 G.- Ab-ra-ham Der-bi-son introduced-ril to-men-nuyu you-smelting chu-gu-na on coke.

1784- invent-re-ten to-kar-ny machine Henry Mauds-lee.

Rice. 2. James Hargreaves ()

Rice. 3. Distaff "Jenny" James Hargreaves ()

Rice. 4. James Watt ()

Rice. 5. James Watt steam engine ()

At the end of the 18th century there appeared lathes(Fig. 6). The new technology has led to new organization industry. Manufactories are becoming a thing of the past, and they are being replaced by factories and plants. It became real revolution in industry which made it possible to significantly increase the growth of productive forces. The emergence of factories changed the lives of workers. For the first time in human history working day schedule. From Monday to Saturday, a harsh 12-hour working day was established. It was very bad for a family of workers. They used to be able to earn extra days off and extra money with their special talents and extra effort. Workers lived in a very difficult conditions. New factory towns were built next to the coal mines (Figure 7). In them, workers could rent only one or two rooms. The manufacturers, taking advantage of their position, squeezed everything they could out of their subordinates. They fined workers for swearing, untidiness, being late, using cheap child labour, refused to pay medical service. All this led to the growth of discontent among the workers. The first signs of such discontent were expressed in Luddite movement(Fig. 8). The members of this movement called themselves Luddites, after the legendary worker Neda Ludd(Fig. 9), who, according to legend, was the first to destroy his own machine. Following him, hundreds of people throughout England began to deliberately spoil the hated cars. The English manufacturers were very unhappy with this. The government soon passed a law making the death penalty for damage to the machine.)

Following England, the introduction of machine tools into production came to other countries. The demand for various inventors and their inventions has increased. More and more technical innovations appeared in Europe. Not only the quantity, but also the quality of manufactured products grew. Their prices have gradually come down.

Summing up, it is worth noting that the industrial revolution in Europe had a number of positive factors:

• Sanitation.
• Improving medical care.
• Improving the quality of goods.
• Improving the nutrition of the population.

It is worth noting that all these factors did not appear immediately, it took years for Europe to be on the threshold of a qualitatively new period in its history.

Bibliography

1. Vedyushkin V.A., Burin S.N. Textbook on the history of modern times, grade 7. - M., 2013.

2. Dmitry Travin. Otar Margania. European modernization

3. Erofeev N.A. Industrial Revolution in England. - M., 1963

4. Potemkin F.V. Industrial Revolution in France. T. 1. From manufactory to factory. - M.: Nauka, 1971.

5. E. Hobsbaum. Age of revolution. Europe 1789-1848. - Rostov: Publishing house "Phoenix", 1999.

6. Yudovskaya A.Ya. General history. History of the New Age. 1500-1800. - M.: "Enlightenment", 2012.

Homework

1. How do you understand the terms "agrarian revolution" and "industrial revolution"? When and in what country did they first occur?

2. What caused the industrial revolution?

3. Tell us about the consequences of the industrial revolution in England.

4. What famous inventions can you name? List the outstanding inventors of that time.

The beginning of the industrial revolution.

Technical advances. At the end of the XVIII century. in the industry of a number of European countries, a transition began from the manufacturing stage with its manual technique to the factory production system. This transition is called the industrial revolution, which has important consequences.

The Industrial Revolution began in England in the last third of the 18th century. The needs of the development of manufactories contributed to a number of inventions in the field of mechanics. In 1733, for example, the “flying shuttle” was invented for dressing cloth, which greatly accelerated the production of fabrics. This invention stimulated the work of spinners: soon a machine was created that spun thread without human intervention. A few years later, J. Hargreaves invented the famous Jenny spinning wheel, and a few years later the first spinning mill appeared in England, where the machines worked with the help of a water wheel.

Significant changes also took place in other industries at this time. In 1765, James Watt built a steam engine and improved it six years later. The invention of the steam engine eventually led to the spread of the factory.

For the operation of machines, coal was needed, so its production began to develop intensively. The need for metal increased, which led to the improvement of metallurgy. Intense competition of entrepreneurs in the XIX century. demanded from the owners of enterprises the constant introduction of the latest achievements of science in production. The accumulated knowledge made it possible to obtain coke from coal and with its help to drastically reduce costs in the production of pig iron.

Back in 1722, the French naturalist A. Reaumur discovered the secret of steel production. Reaumur's recipes became feasible after, in 1856, the Englishman G. Bessemer found a way to blow air through hot iron in order to burn out excess oxygen from it and turn it into steel. Almost simultaneously, the brothers E. and P. Marten created a special furnace for the restoration of cast iron, named after them.

In 1825, J. Stephenson led the passenger train. The length of the railways grew very quickly. In 1830, a 100-kilometer rail track linked Manchester with Liverpool. And by 1850, England was covered with a network of railways with a total length of 50 thousand km. Railway fever contributed to the rapid development of metallurgy, mechanical engineering, steam locomotive and car building.

The birth of an industrial society.

The Industrial Revolution, which began in England, later spread to other European countries, the United States. The Industrial Revolution created the conditions that gave birth to the industrial society. A worldview was also born, which became the ideological basis of industrial society.

An industrial society should be based on the ideas of freedom, equality and independence: entrepreneurs did not depend on the power of the state, buyers and sellers were equal, each member of society should be free in their actions.

The most rapid development of industrial society was in England. Here in the second half of the seventeenth century. freedom of trade was established. Were taking shape the necessary conditions for the rule of free competition. The development of free competition in England was facilitated by the absence of internal customs duties.

The formation of a layer of wage-workers and the creation of an internal market (that is, people who needed to buy industrial products) were combined in England with a turbulent process of the so-called primitive accumulation of capital. Capital is money that generates income. In the XVII - XVIII centuries. cash accumulated in England in such numbers that a whole stratum of wealthy people was formed who were looking for profitable premises for their capital.

There is also an industrial proletariat - people working in factories. Their work was very difficult then. The working day lasted up to 18 hours a day, the salary was low. The invention of new machines led to mass layoffs, which caused outrage among the workers. This was expressed in the periodic breakdown of machines and tools (Luddism). Under the law, damage to cars was punishable by death.

The end of the Industrial Revolution in England.

In the first half of the XIX century. The industrial revolution in England was completed. It was in this country that he acquired the most mature, classical forms of his development. England became in the 19th century. into the "workshop of the world" and remained so almost until the end of the century.

Light industry was the most receptive to new trends. This is due to the fact that only products necessary for the average consumer, clothing, footwear, fabrics, can give a quick profit. The machines and machines that manufacturers need do not bring profit until after some time.

The economic development of England and France in the first half of the XIX century.

Great Britain entered the 19th century in a state of extreme tension caused by continuous wars with France. Only the fear of an invasion from France, which united the nation, helped to withstand the terrible tension of the war. The continental blockade imposed by Napoleon sharply raised food prices, which gave rise to "hunger riots".

The victory over Napoleon in 1815 ended the continental blockade, but it created new problems. Up to half a million people were dismissed from the army and navy. The government has reduced its orders. Cheap European grain began to arrive in England. The fall in prices gave rise to a panic that engulfed not only farmers, but also the aristocracy - the landlords. The income tax, which fell mainly on the rich, was reduced and then completely abolished, and indirect taxes, which were a burden on the bulk of the population, were raised. In 1815, the "bread laws" were adopted, in fact, the import of bread into the country was prohibited. As a result, the price of bread skyrocketed. Potatoes and turnips became the main food of working families for a long time.

Despite significant difficulties, the accelerated development of industry and agriculture in England continued.

The economic development of another leading Western European country - France in the first half of the XIX century. also progressed well. In the first decade of the XIX century. French industry grew by more than 50%. The development of the economy was facilitated by the influx of money and valuables from the conquered countries, protectionist policies and lucrative foreign trade deals. However, Napoleon's wars themselves contributed to undermining the economy. The defeat in the fight against the anti-French coalition dealt a serious blow to the French economy, from which, however, she managed to recover fairly quickly. During the reign of the Bourbons in industry, manual labor continued to be replaced by machine labor. The number of factories and factories grew.

In economic terms, in the 30s - 40s. 19th century France was the most developed (after England) country in Europe. By the end of the first half of the XIX century. the factory type of production was the leader in ferrous metallurgy and was intensively introduced into mechanical engineering. From 1825 to 1847 the volume of industrial production increased by 2/3. New industries developed rapidly, especially the chemical industry.

Features of economic development in the second half of the XIX century.

In the second half of the XIX century. the economy of the advanced countries of Europe is again undergoing changes. They influenced the life of society and the political development of these countries and the whole world.

These changes are associated with the emergence of monopolies. Monopolies are large business associations that are privately owned, which can be individual, group, joint-stock, and exercise control over industries, markets and the economy based on a high degree of concentration of production and capital in order to set higher prices and extract higher profits.

The emergence of monopolies was caused by progress in technology, the complication of the production process. It required more and more capital, as machines and raw materials became more and more expensive. Therefore, entrepreneurs began to unite.

Economic crises contributed to the acceleration of this association. Implementation new technology led to the reduction of workers, as a result they stopped buying manufactured goods. This is how the crisis of overproduction arose. The first such crisis occurred in England as early as 1825. In 1858, the first world economic crisis began. During crises, many enterprises were closed, entrepreneurs went bankrupt. It was easier for the association of entrepreneurs to overcome the consequences of the crises.

The most important aspect of the development of monopolies was the new role of banks and other financial institutions in the economy. The growth in the concentration of production and capital forced industrial companies to look for strong ties with banks in order to obtain long-term loans and open credit in the event of a change in the economic situation. Banks are turning from intermediaries into all-powerful monopolists. In the second half of the XIX century. the process of merging of production and capital accelerated. There were monopolies of the following types: syndicate, trust, cartel, concern.

A cartel is an association of independent enterprises based on a temporary agreement with the aim of establishing control over the market for a certain product, raising prices for this product and ensuring monopoly high profits. The higher the concentration of production and capital in a particular industry, the smaller the number of dominant enterprises in this regard, the greater the possibilities for collusion between them to control the market. At a certain stage of concentration, such collusion becomes a necessity.

The cartel may provide for the establishment of mandatory minimum prices for goods for all participants, the delimitation of sales areas, the determination of the total volume of production or sales and the share of each participant in it.

A syndicate is an association of independent enterprises of any industry, based on an agreement on the joint sale of goods. The syndicate is created with the aim of ensuring monopoly dominance in the market, setting monopoly prices and obtaining the highest profit. The participants of the syndicate are both individual enterprises and entire trusts and concerns, which use the syndicate to subordinate small enterprises to their control and expand their influence in domestic and foreign markets.

A trust is a form of association in which the merging enterprises lose their independence and are subject to a single management. The owners of enterprises included in the trust are deprived of the right to dispose of them directly.

Concerns - associations were the highest form of monopolies; enterprises, banks, trading firms on the basis of general financial dependence on a certain group of capitalists.

Often, formally independent concerns were combined into financial groups through a system of participation in financial dependence on the parent company - the "financial house" (Morgans, Rockefellers in the USA).

After the world economic crisis of 1873, the process of development of cartels began, which, however, quickly disintegrated. By the end of the 19th century, cartels were one of the foundations of the European economy. By the beginning of the twentieth century. the number of concerns and trusts in the United States increased from 185 to 250. A new phenomenon was the emergence of international cartels in mining, chemical, metallurgical, electrical and other industries.

The role of the state in the economy.

In the first half of the XIX century. State intervention in the economy has been drastically reduced. Bankers, owners of industrial enterprises persistently defended the freedom of enterprise. In their opinion, the role of the state should have been limited only to protecting the general conditions conducive to the development of the economic life of the country (means of communication, means of communication, maintaining the stability of monetary circulation), and protecting their external interests.

However, in the second half of the XIX century. the role of the state in managing the colonies increases, and wars (for example, the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871) help the victorious country to receive huge military indemnities. State intervention in economic life also included the introduction of factory and state legislation for workers' insurance.

The old state enterprises are still preserved, primarily in the military field, but they are already losing their former significance. State lands, subsoil, forests are gradually passing into private hands. Only transport and roads, which are of an important strategic nature, remain in the possession of the state.

The strongest influence of the state on the economy was in Germany. Here the nationalization of the railways took place, a tobacco monopoly was introduced.

By the beginning of the 20th century, the largest monopolies were merging with the state apparatus. State officials headed the monopoly associations. In some cases, monopolies are endowed with the functions of state power. Often state and private monopolies were intertwined.

Changes in the economy of the largest countries.

France finally turned into a country of monopoly capital in the early twentieth century. During these years, there was a rapid increase in the concentration of production, an increase in monopolies and their strengthening.

In 1897, an economic upsurge began in the country, which covered all branches of industrial production, especially metallurgical. The economic recovery was accompanied by growth foreign trade, increased imports of raw materials and machinery, an increase in the internal movement of goods, an increase in railway revenues and an increase in the value of French bank bills.

By the end of the XIX century. The United States and Germany come out on top in terms of industrial growth rates.

The development of production required the protection of the rights of workers, whose hands created the national wealth of states. This was done first in Germany, where state insurance for workers was introduced.

In England, trade unions (trade unions) were also legalized, giving them the status of a legal entity and judicial protection of their funds. The work of children under 10 years of age in production was prohibited. In 1891, a law on free primary education was passed.

The importance of trade unions was especially great in the USA, where the labor movement assumed a wide scope. American trade unions (ORT and AFL) led the movement of workers for their rights. This struggle took the form of strikes, mass demonstrations, often accompanied by clashes with the police. The main demand of the workers was to increase wages, the introduction of an 8-hour working day, labor protection in production.