HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF WOOD PROCESSING FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE PRESENT

, (UGLTU, Yekaterinburg, Russian Federation)

History of development of processing of a wood since ancient times till now

Wood is one of the oldest building materials known to mankind, which has always been and will remain popular in interior decoration. Nowadays, you can find fairly well-preserved windows, whose age has exceeded 100 years or more. The main advantages of wood are environmental friendliness, durability, wide processing and application possibilities. But these are its practical qualities, and for most people, the natural beauty of wood, the variety of its texture, tones and shades, and excellent combinations with other interior elements are especially attractive. This allows us to call wood an elite material. However, the degree of eliteness of a tree and products from it largely depends on the type of wood and the method of its processing.

Features of woodworking - in its centuries-old traditions, constant focus on specific human needs, evolutionary development methods of labor, progressive renewal and expansion of the list of products, a progressive increase in the marketability of production. The volumetric variety of mass types of woodworking products is increasing. By the endXIX century, it was already characterized by a 20-30-fold increase: industrial sawmilling appeared, machine (mechanical) wood processing and factory production of furniture were developed. AT XXcentury, marketability has increased more than 100 times. This happened on the basis of mechanization and automation of the production of traditional products (furniture, windows, doors, parquet, etc.), industrial production of wood-based panels. Such a rapid growth in marketability once again confirms the opinion of many experts: the "golden" age of wood is not so much in the past as in the future. After all, products made of wood and wood-based materials and semi-finished products (lumber, plywood, board materials) will be constantly needed by any society and person.

1. History of woodworking tools

Woodworking at the beginning of its development has long been an area of ​​handicrafts with the use of almost exclusively manual labor.

The first type of mechanical wood processing was sawmilling, which appeared in Holland in the 11th century. The logs were sawn in so-called sawmills, which were a primitive sawmill frame driven by a windmill. Later, the drive of sawmill frames from water wheels (water saw mills) began to be introduced.

In Russia, the first saw water mill was built by Bazhenin in 1690 near Arkhangelsk, and in 1696 the first wind saw mill appeared there. Under Peter I, 30-40 such mills were built. Before the advent of saw mills in Russia, boards and beams were hewn out of logs with an ax.

Mechanical sawmilling has received significant development since the beginning of the 19th century as a result of its introduction into the sawmill industry. steam engines and improvement of sawmills.

In the first half of the 19th century, peeling and horizontal planing machines were invented. This made it possible to obtain thin layers of wood by peeling and planing. The first plywood factory was built in Reval in 1887.

1.1. Woodworking tool in the III millennium BC. e.

When examining the burial inventory of the Royal Necropolis of Ur, a specific group of tools was found in the graves of persons of the highest social rank - kings and members of the royal family - among the mass of luxurious weapons, jewelry, precious vessels, etc. The burial inventory, which belonged to a child and is known in scientific literature as a “burial of a princess”, ceremonial weapons are included, among other things - a golden dagger and a spear made of electrum (an alloy of gold and silver), a copper-bronze socketed ax. But, in addition, there is a whole set of carpentry tools, also made of valuable materials. This is a golden socketed adze, two golden chisels and one bronze, as well as a bronze saw. The tomb of Queen Shubad/Pu-zbi also contains an extensive set of carpentry tools. These are several bronze saws and one gold one, five gold chisels belonging to two different types, a bronze drill and a socketed adze. In the burial of King Meskalamdug, along with weapons made of gold and electrum (dagger, socketed axes), a bronze saw was also found (Fig. 1).

1.2. Carpentry tool in ancient Russia

Tree secrets like building material have been unraveled for a long time. This is the most environmentally friendly and beautiful material that allows you to create an optimal microclimate in the room. Wood is alive, it "breathes", having a beneficial effect on the human body, moreover, it absorbs sound well, purifies and disinfects the air without causing allergic reactions. In log houses, a constant oxygen balance and optimal air humidity are maintained. The houses are warm in winter and cool in summer. Fatigue and irritation go somewhere in the wooden walls, and peace and tranquility are instilled in the soul.

Russia is a country of endless forests. A person living in the forest region could not but be a carpenter. Carpentry came along with agriculture from ancient times. Practically everything needed in household use, starting from the house and the "yard", was made of wood: spoons and tuesas, buckets, baskets and other utensils, furniture, spinning wheels and a weaving mill, a boat, a sleigh and a cart, hunting and fishing equipment, - even the chimney and chimney were wooden. A newborn man was placed in a wooden cradle, and an old man was seen off in a wooden domina on his last journey. And, of course, above all else, a man built a house for himself. "The wooden temples of the North breathed, shone and carried on a conversation with a person ... in conjunction with houses, threshing floors, baths. They ... crowned every, even a small village." And in the temple, a person worshiped a tree, prayed to a tree. Icons were painted on boards, iconostases, "royal gates", sculptures were carved from wood.

The construction of any building, even the smallest, was not complete without good tools. Not just good, but comfortable to hold in the hand, commensurate with the hand and body of a particular person (they say: "handy") and, of course, correctly and sharply sharpened. Each craft had its own tools, and each tool was used only to perform a specific operation. The carpenter did not work with a carpenter's ax, and the cooper's scraper was a little like a carpenter's.

1.2.1. Ax - the main tool in the past

The vast majority of all construction work was carried out with an ax. Trees in the forest were felled with a wood-cutting ax with a narrow blade, the cutting edge of which, compared to a carpenter's ax, was much farther from the ax handle.

This was necessary so that the ax, when struck, deeply obliquely entered the layers of the tree, but did not get stuck in the wood. Logs, chopping blocks, and boards were hewn with a protes with a wide, rounded blade (Fig. 2).

The word "ax" is of Turkic origin, it came to Russia along with the Tatar-Mongol invasion and replaced Russian word"ax". In the village of Ratonbvolok (Kholmogorsky district of the Arkhangelsk region), a real ax has survived to this day! A slightly curved handle, polished by many hands, is fitted with a long sickle-shaped blade with an elongated toe and a straight heel. The length of the blade was 35 cm, and the total length with the handle was almost a meter. The ax has been preserved in perfect working order: tightly wedged and sharply sharpened. With such an ax you can not only cut a log or block, but you can safely go to battle with the Horde.

Logs were hewn with a carpenter's ax, bowls were cut into them, knots were made for connecting elements, decorative details and much more. Carpenter's ax XVII-XVIII centuries. significantly different from today. The ax itself (the metal part) was short, tear-shaped in cross section, the blade was not wide (9-15 cm), semicircular, thickened, with a large wedge-shaped shape (resembling the shape of a cleaver for splitting firewood, logs) (Fig. 2b), and the ax itself is heavier . Axes were forged from especially resistant, high-strength steel. The ax (handle) is long and straight (and not curved, as modern), thickened at the end so that it does not jump out of the hands. For the ax handle, a straight birch chopping block without knots was chosen. The length of the ax handle was different, because it depended on the height of the carpenter: the carpenter, placing the ax on the ground vertically near his foot, with his freely lowered hand, could take the thickened end of the ax handle into his fist (Fig. 2c). A long ax, being, in fact, a lever, allowed the carpenter to spend less effort.

Carpenter's ax XVII-XVIII centuries. when hewing, it cleaves wood without sinking deep into it and leaving no traces in the form of scratches, scratches and notches, and with its concave side and its mass, upon impact, it simultaneously compacts the wood on the surface to be treated. When working, the ax was held in hands so that its blade was not directed parallel to the log, but moved in an arc towards it - then at the end of the blow the ax itself came out of the tree. If the ax nevertheless stopped in the wood and thereby left a scuff, the latter was removed by the next blow, applied before the end point in the log of the previous blow. By these means, the cut wood fibers were tightly adjoined to each other without scuffing. A thin ax goes deep into the wood and gets stuck there, which makes it very difficult to cut.

Blocks and roofing boards were hewn in two directions - back and forth - alternately, in stripes, along the log. The width of one strip was equal to the width of the ax blade. Ax XVII-XVIII centuries. left characteristic traces on the hewn planes. On the board, a pattern was obtained that looked like a herringbone or the ribs of a fish skeleton, and in the longitudinal section of the board these traces were wavy, reminiscent of a washboard. The surface of the hewn boards turned out to be so smooth that one could not even put a hand on it, and at the same time not flat and even, but embossed, wavy. From the surface treated in this way, rainwater was removed more easily, so hewn boards were less exposed to moisture and biodamage (rotting).

The work of a carpenter is physically very difficult, requiring a lot of energy, so the carpenters were fed with meat cabbage soup even in the midst of haymaking and in Lent. “A good carpenter, of course, never interfered with heroic strength. But even without it, he was still a good carpenter. on a par with talent and skill, but on its own. Real carpenters saved strength. They were leisurely. They didn’t work without single-row mittens."

A young worker, usually a teenager, began to comprehend the art of carpentry with an ordinary ax handle. To make an ax means to pass the first exam. The hatchet was made from dry birch blanks. "The ax must also be planted, and wedged correctly so that the ax does not fall off, and cleaned with a glass shard. After all this, the ax was sharpened on a wet grindstone. Each operation in itself required ingenuity, skills and patience. This is how life taught in childhood and adolescence future carpenter to patience and consistency.

In most carpentry work, the ax was held with two hands; the bowl was chopped from two sides, striking alternately, now on the right, then on the left. Which side to hit, right or left, was determined by the location of the wood fibers in order to press the cut fibers upon impact. Therefore, the ax blade was sharpened symmetrically, on the same chamfers, at the same angle. However, sometimes, due to the specifics of the processing of the element, the sharpening of the blade was made asymmetrical.

The ax was never stuck into a log intended for construction, because then the meaning of densely hemming its surface disappeared. In general, logs prepared for laying in a building, i.e., debarked (sanded), hewn and scraped, as well as finished parts, were handled very carefully, protecting them from mechanical damage, dirt, etc. a scratch is a "gate for infection". This increased the likelihood of biodamaging the wood of the building element and, in the end, could shorten the life of the entire structure.

The ax was never left stuck in a log or block of wood and was not placed against the wall, but only placed under the bench. Moreover, the ax was turned with a blade to the wall, so that no one would accidentally get hurt, lifting something rolled under the bench. In general, any actions associated with a threat to health when working with an ax and other tools were specially warned.

To trim the log walls from the inside of the room, a special ax was used, the blade of which was straight and somewhat elongated compared to a conventional carpenter's ax, and the blade itself was turned at an acute angle so that the axis of the ax head was parallel to one edge of the blade. (Fig. 3a). The ax handle for such an ax was specially selected from a thin twisted tree trunk so as not to upholster the hands during work. In this case, the carpenter needed two mirror-forged axes, i.e. one with the blade offset to the right of the carpenter, for cutting from right to left, the other with an offset to the left, for trimming from left to right. In the corners, the surface of the logs was hewn in an arc. It turned out a "round" corner. The trimming was carried out from the corner to the middle of the wall. Do not trim the left side of the corner, rounded in an arc, with the "right" ax. Instead of two axes, one was sometimes used, but double-edged, double-sided, which had one eye and two mirror-forged blades (Fig. 3b). It was with such axes that the Arkhangelsk masters hewed the walls.

In this case, the angle of sharpening the ax also mattered. The ax blade was sharpened asymmetrically, at different sharpening angles, depending on which side the wall was hewn from - on the right or left (Fig. 3c). The chamfer of the ax blade, facing the wall during trimming and intended for cutting wood (i.e., the external chamfer in relation to the carpenter, parallel to the axis of the ax handle), was sharpened at a sharper angle relative to the axis of the blade than the other. The inner chamfer, intended for chipping chips, was sharpened at a less acute angle. Such an asymmetry of the sharpening angles allows the blade to be in reliable contact with the surface to be treated, the ax does not slide on it and does not bounce, it is, as it were, "pulled" into the wood.

In the "Course of carpentry work ...", released in 1906, a "transverse" ax is presented, also intended for "cutting log walls", the straight blade of which was turned perpendicular to the ax handle, in fact it turned out to be a broadened adze with a flat blade. Modern practicing carpenters-restorers suggest that only "round" corners in the interior were hewn with such an ax, because it is inconvenient for them to hew the vertical surfaces of the walls. In addition, after processing with such an ax, the vertical surface of the walls remains uneven, with large waves that would have to be removed with a scraper and planer in several passes.

1.2.2. Adze, devil, drag and other tools

An adze is, in fact, also an ax, the ax handle of which is long and straight, and the blade is not only turned perpendicular to the ax handle, but also has a semicircular section, in the form of a scoop (Fig. 3a). Adze was carved on a log along its fibers of the gutter different sizes(for example, a shallow groove in a log intended for laying in a wall, or a deep gutter), performed sections of a smooth transition from a round log to a beam at window and door openings, hewed after the ax "round corners" in the interior and other curved surfaces. Paznik - an adze with a narrow flat blade - served for the final, finishing excavation of manholes after cutting the groove rough with an ax (Fig. 36). As a rule, the groove was first cut down rough with an ax until a U-shaped profile was obtained, and then, in the depths of the manhole, the wood was chosen with a groove.

A carpenter's ax differs from a carpenter's ax in smaller sizes and less weight - after all, the carpenter does not process logs, but smaller structural parts. The toe of the carpenter's ax is sharp, and the blade is straight. But there were also cleavers, cooper and wheel axes, and even the "American" one, the butt of which was replaced by an ordinary four-sided hammer. But these are tools of other crafts.

A line is the most common tool for drawing parallel straight or curved lines on the surface of wood for the purpose of subsequent trimming or sawing logs and building details. To do this, carefully, "by a thread" hewed the edge of one board. The next board was applied to this edge and, firmly pressing the line to the straightened edge, they scratched, drew a deep parallel scratch with a metal point on the adjacent board or adjacent structure. According to this scratch-line, the adjoining edge was hewn. Marking with a line requires accuracy, since the mark left is a deep scratch: this is not a pencil mark - you cannot erase it. By loosening or tightening the winding of the line or by fixing the distance with a wedge and a ring, the distance between the sharp ends of the line was changed. The logs were drawn with a line to select a longitudinal groove in order to achieve a tight fit of the logs in the walls, a bowl in the logs before its finishing. With the help of the line, they drew (beat off) and then cut out a smooth edge of the blocks and boards for their tight fit (they laid them in the line or in the line), The line marked the junctions of the elements and made other marks, which now the carpenters mark with a pencil. Subsequently, along with the line, a carpenter's compass was used.

With a large number of boards, it is more convenient to draw them with the help of a drag, taking the boards into a kind of machine. In the Arkhangelsk Territory, this tool is called a "finch", they say: "draw under the finch", "gain the floor under the finch", that is, especially tightly, without the slightest cracks.

Subsequently, in many technological operations, the line and the drag were replaced by a thickness gauge. "Thickness gauge" - a German word, literally means "a tool for drawing parallel lines" (thickness machine, T-square gauge). The thickness gauge was also used to transfer dimensions from one part to another. The principle of its operation is similar: drawing a scratch on the wood with a sharp hairpin, only instead of a ring and a wedge, like a dash, the thickness gauge has a movable block, which is fixed with a screw.

For finishing, after an ax, debarking logs and removing sapwood, a plow, or a scraper (from "scrape") was used. This tool was a scraper, a crescent-shaped metal plate with cutting edge and two handles. In some localities middle lane In Russia, this scraper was called a hak (from the strained sound "ha" made by a carpenter when working with this tool). There were two types of it: straight and rounded (curve). With a scraper, the bark was removed from the logs at the border of the bast, without damaging the wood, and at the same time the surface of the log was leveled, cutting off irregularities and small knots. The logs were barked in the direction from the butt to the top, so as not to leave scratches. When debarking a log with an ax, chips and serifs would inevitably appear, which increased the likelihood of biodamages; when processing with a scraper, the surface of the log turned out to be smooth and without burrs. Logs with an intact, dense and smooth surface remain in the building for an unusually long time.

The “waves” remaining after processing with an ax and adzes were also removed from the hewn surface with a scraper and the surface was brought to a perfectly smooth surface. Walls, roofing boards, door and window jambs, door and shutter panels were scraped. It should be noted that structural elements were scraped only in small volumes or in the interior of churches and living quarters of the house, since it is very difficult to work with a scraper, more difficult than with a planer. Straight surfaces were scraped with a straight scraper, "round" corners in the interior - round. Jambs of door and window openings, door leafs, boards, etc. were scraped along the fibers of the wood, while the walls were scraped at an angle of about 60 ° to the axis of the log. Due to the fact that the logs of the walls had to some extent the slope of the fibers, they were scraped in two directions: half a log - in one direction, half a log - in the other. After the scraper, the surface treatment was completed.

Along with the groove, the grooves in the window and door jambs were cleaned with a spiked chisel. A flat chisel and a clearing were wider and thinner than a tenon chisel, they cleaned grooves and nests from the sides and punched holes in building elements. For the most delicate, delicate work, a chisel was used. A chisel, a clearing and a chisel were sharpened only on one side.

To drill holes, various drills were needed: spoon, screw, feather ("pepper", "perk"). They drilled nests for dowels ("kuksy") in the logs of the log house.

The saw appeared in Russia under Peter I, and entered into everyday carpentry use only in the 19th century. A two-handed cross saw is needed for sawing logs across the fibers. A bow saw, also a transverse one, used to cut down trees in the forest. The bow saw looks like an X-shaped frame, on one side of which the saw blade was fixed, and on the other side the blade was stretched with a twist - a bowstring. Its cutting blade is flexible, the steel is hard. A narrow blade, no more than 5 cm wide, was inserted into the bow saw in order to protect the blade from pinching when cutting trees of large diameter. For cutting logs along the fibers, a special two-handed fly saw (longitudinal) with long oblique teeth and a small divorce was used. A hacksaw is used to make longitudinal and transverse cuts and slots in thin elements and boards.

A regular planer for a carpenter was also optional. This is a carpentry tool. A preliminary, rough cut of the material (roofing board, building elements) was performed with a medvedon (medvedka) planer, they worked together, a planer with a semicircular blade (sherhebel) also performed a rough cut, but with one pair of hands, and then the board was planed with a planer with one or two blades (one knife-blade was called a piece of iron, the other, breaking chips, was called a slab). An ordinary planer has one blade (piece of iron) with a straight lower end. Planing is easier if the plane is not driven strictly along the wood fibers, but at a slight angle to them - this is how the pickup blade removes chips. The thinner and longer it is, the more noble the surface is. Finally, the surface of the board or part can be passed with a jointer. For planing a quarter and a tongue, a zentoubel was used, for profile processing of edges - a selector, and to create a relief surface of the board - calevka.

The square was used to beat only the right angle of the bevel - the same square, but with one movable edge - was used to remove and mark various angles. A folding arshin (later a meter) is also necessary for a carpenter. All other auxiliary devices were made by the carpenters themselves in the course of work (plumb lines, string, wedges, etc.).

Wedges were needed for many works: they were inserted into cuts, splits and splits to prevent clamping of tools, building elements were clamped with wedges for their tight joining (for example, floor blocks), gaps in the nodes and joints of elements were straightened by wedging, tool handles were wedged, wedges were placed to correct small carpentry flaws. It is not in vain that they say: "The wedge is the first assistant to the carpenter", "Not a wedge and not moss - and the carpenter would have died."

The tool and the historical technology of wood processing are of cultural and historical value.

2. Development of woodworking in the XXI century

The efficient use of wood in combination with new materials has improved its properties. Currently, up to a thousand items of products are made from wood. Resources of wood as a natural material are constantly being restored.

The woodworking industry, which is part of the timber industry complex (LPK), includes various industries that can be divided into two groups: primary and secondary wood processing.

The primary processing group includes industries that are characterized by the consumption of timber (production of lumber, production of veneer, plywood, wood-based panels, plastics and other wood-based materials) and their manufacture of semi-finished products from them by mechanical, hydrothermal processing and gluing.

Secondary processing group - mechanical processing of wood and gluing semi-finished products from it in order to obtain parts that later undergo a protective and decorative finish, are assembled into knots, and then into a specific product.

The demand for woodworking products is determined by the usefulness of the product and the level of effective demand for it and has a decisive influence on the marketability, if its scale ensures mass production. Mass production is unthinkable without new methods of labor, i.e. technology, and new technological equipment.

The usefulness of products is determined by a complex of factors: technical, ergonomic, environmental, social, etc. Ignoring these facts when creating new products inevitably affects demand and marketability. More than 30 years ago in the USSR it was organized industrial production wooden windows without vents. More productive technology and lower costs clashed with utility, and the new product was not widely used. Many woodworking enterprises produced what they could, and not what the consumer needed. To produce the required (ordered, even paid) products, and not to create difficulties for oneself with the sale (sale, exchange) of already produced products - this principle of responding to demand was the first to be implemented by furniture makers, introducing trade in samples of products or their sets. Therefore, it seems obvious that the demand criterion will become a priority and will become decisive for the development of woodworking.

2.1. The latest developments in the woodworking industry

Everyone knows the term "eurowindow". Currently, wooden, wood-aluminum and plastic (PVC) windows are produced. Plastic windows have practically replaced other window materials in our country from the field of civil engineering and have been actively introduced into housing construction. They are opposed by windows made of massive glued timber. Similar processes are developing in the furniture industry: the front parts of cabinet furniture made of solid wood, MDF, lined with chipboard compete. The development of new and improvement of manufactured types of composite (plate-sheet) materials will initiate an in-depth study of the processes of molding and pressing materials in order to give them the required properties and operational control of these properties during the entire production cycle. The need of builders for new products and structures made of wood will determine the increased interest in researching the properties of wood and operational methods product quality control.

Marketability of woodworking products in the first thirdXXI century will increase by at least 2 times, because the range of composite materials based on wood is constantly expanding, the demand for solid wood products is increasing, and the volume of wood use in construction is growing. The requirements for the completeness of the development and the timing of its implementation will increase. Increasing competition between old and new types of products, between wood and alternative materials, against the backdrop of growing demand for solid wood products, will become an effective factor in ensuring product quality. The demand for new products and structures made of wood for construction determines the increased interest in research on the properties of wood and the development of methods operational control product quality.

2.1.1. Wood seal

For many years, one of the disadvantages of wood was considered to be the limited possibility of its molding. At the Dresden University of Technology, experts have developed and patented new technology processing of wooden structures, which significantly expanded the scope of their application. On the end of the beam, processed by the Dresden method, it is clear that the annual rings are oval, as if flattened. Peer Haller, Professor at the Institute for Building Structures and Timber Structures at the University of Dresden (peer haller) explains that the wood has been compacted. The compaction process is carried out at a temperature of 150º C with a hot press. In this case, the wood microstructure is compressed, and as a result, wood of very high density is obtained - approximately 1 kg / dm3. Dry spruce wood in its normal state has half the density, since it is a kind of sponge. It is the high porosity of wood that makes it possible to obtain beams of rectangular cross section from round trunks by hot pressing without any loss.

During the construction of large engineering connections, for example, bridges, loads are distributed extremely unevenly. As a result, individual beams are subject to increased wear. If these beams are made from compacted wood and the rest from regular wood, this will preserve the architectural harmony of the bridge and at the same time provide optimal performance.

Where the expected loads are particularly high, engineers use steel beams of various profiles (T or I-section). But also hollow beams of box-shaped or round section are capable of carrying a greater load than solid massive beams. The technology developed by Professor Haller makes it possible to obtain hollow beams from wood. To do this, first the round barrel is pressed into a square bar, and then the deformation is removed from one side. As a result, the square section turns into a trapezoidal one, and this makes it possible to fold a hollow pipe from several such beams.

2.1.2. Combination of wood with polymer

Currently, technologists are trying to combine a wooden base with a polymer coating. For these purposes, glue is used, but the desired result is not always obtained. The specialists of the Laser Center in Hannover proposed another method - the use of a laser. One of the developers Stefan Barczykowski (Stefan Bartcikowsky) says: - It is necessary to imagine the matter in such a way that the plastic for the laser beam is transparent. The laser beam, as it were, looks through the plastic, not noticing it, but sees the wood behind it. And it is there, on this border, that the laser energy is concentrated. The wood heats up and melts the plastic, so that a strong welded joint is formed, which has significant advantages over glued ones. The energy of the laser beam must be chosen so that the temperature in the boundary layer does not exceed 400º, otherwise the wood begins to char. Most polymers begin to melt at 90 degrees. The melt flows into the pores of the wood and a strong bond is formed. When testing samples, the break does not occur in the joint zone, but in the thickness of the material, which is a good sign. This means that the resulting welded joint is stronger than the materials being joined. Pilot plant of Hannover engineers ensures welding speed - 1m/min. The authors of the development intend to increase the laser power (currently, the laser power is 100 W) and increase the welding speed to 80 m/min.

2.1.3. Wood in the production of ceramics

Wood is beginning to be used in the manufacture of ceramics. Until now, mineral powders have served as the starting material for it - for example, finely ground silicon carbide was placed in a mold and sintered. But grinding and sintering are very energy-intensive processes. Therefore, American engineers have developed a more environmentally friendly technology for the production of ceramics: it not only requires less energy, but also uses a renewable raw material - wood - as a starting material. Mrityanjay Singh, NASA Ceramic New Materials Research Scientist in Cleveland, Ohio, says: “We can even use sawdust, which is a major problem for sawmills to dispose of. Astringents are added to the sawdust, then the resulting mass is shaped into a future part, after which this workpiece is subjected to pyrolysis (decomposition under high temperatures in an oxygen-free environment). It is this process that turns wood into charcoal, which is chemically pure carbon. And then silicon is added to the furnace - the second component of the future carborundum ceramics. In addition to silicon compounds, melts of some salts can also be used, which makes it possible to produce a wide range of modern ceramics. The peculiarity of the proposed technology is that the microstructure of wood is preserved throughout the entire process, and the ceramics, as it were, takes over some properties of the original material.

CONCLUSION

New technologies may appear both as a result of the creation of fundamentally different types of composite materials, and as a result of the use of new operations for woodworking - for example, stamping in the manufacture of products from dense materials - in the mass production of socially accessible products.

Two factors will be decisive for the development of new methods of work, even in the manufacture of traditional products: the tightening of requirements for the quality of products and the desire for the rational use of wood. In particular, sawless cutting of wood will eliminate the formation of soft wood waste (sawdust, dust, etc.), will allow to obtain high quality surfaces and, possibly, abandon a number of currently used grinding techniques. The physical and technical methods of such wood processing can be of a different nature (vibration, radiation, water hammer, etc.).

Increasing requirements for product quality will lead to fundamental changes in the processes of its protection (impregnation, finishing). Such changes will most likely lead to an increase in the use of protective and finishing materials (such as Pinotex, Lazurol), exacerbate the problem of inexpensive weather-resistant varnishes, protective films, etc.

Also, the problem will be to ensure a high (up to 80-90%) level of automation of all technological operations(from preparation and supply of raw materials to packaging and storage of products). The solution to the problem lies in the creation of automatic control and regulation systems, since they make it possible to practically eliminate manual labor in mass production.

The problem of wood-cutting tools, regardless of new ways of cutting wood, will obviously be resolved in two interrelated directions: the creation of new types of tools based on a deeper knowledge of the properties of wood and new structural materials (steels, alloys, etc.).

Bibliographic list

1. To the question of origins ancient culture Near East (Excavations of Nevali-Chori) /,. // Bulletin of ancient historyN 1. - c. 36-47.

2. Deacons of the ancient East. The origin of the oldest class societies and the first centers of slave-owning civilization. Part I. Mesopotamia. Ed .. M. 1983. - p. 24-69.

3. Kramer begins in Sumer. M. 1965. - p. 58-91.

4. Belov life of the Russian North. M. 2000. - p. 36-47

5. Cheap wood technology. - L .: Gostekhizdat, 1936. - T.1. With. 98-106.

6. http://***** [Electronic resource]

Let's look at some options for wood processing with natural substances, which can be very useful in the absence of specials. funds:

* LINSEED OIL (very good for wood)

Linseed oil is a classic method using natural preparations to treat wood types such as birch to achieve a long lasting, durable and moisture resistant surface. possible options:

1. Raw linseed oil, undiluted oil drying oil.

application example: Knife handle (or other product)

need to be placed in linseed oil for several days.

To do this, the knife can be placed in a jar with a screw-on lid with a thin slot for the blade, which, after placing the knife in it, must be hermetically sealed.

When the wood of the cutting is soaked through, it must be wiped with a smooth, dry rag. After that, let it dry completely for a few weeks. When the oil evaporates, the surface is oxidized and polymerized, which after some time becomes strong and elastic.

2. Linseed oil diluted by 50% with turpentine. Liquid prepared from linseed oil of real natural turpentine (do not use substitutes!) in a ratio of 1 to 1.

With the help of turpentine, the drying time of the wood and the oxidation of the oil is reduced.

Application: (see 1). Drying time is 1-2 weeks.

3. Linseed oil with tar.

The addition of 50% tar gives the wood a red-brown tint. (apply see 1)

Use only natural tar, after application carefully wipe off the remaining oil with a soft and smooth rag.

CAUTION: When using linseed oil, there is a risk of spontaneous combustion of rags soaked in linseed solution. Therefore, throw away with extreme care, so as not to lead to fire!

* WOODEN PRODUCTS CAN BE WAXED, here is one of the varnish recipes:

LAC. COMPOUND:

wax - 100 hours

rosin - 25 hours

turpentine 50h (parts are indicated by weight).

Grind and melt rosin and wax, mix, then remove from heat and pour in turpentine, mix thoroughly. Coating recipes are different and here you can and should try different compositions. Another way of such folk varnish is rosin dissolved in turpentine.

Chopped log house does not need processing. The rounded log is processed to prevent cracking, rotting and darkening.

* SEVERAL OLD RECIPES FOR CHEAP AND DURABLE PAINTS FOR WOODEN SURFACES:

COTTAGE CHEESE AND LIME:

Equal amounts of fresh cottage cheese and slaked lime are thoroughly kneaded. A white, rapidly drying liquid is formed.

It must be used the same day, because it quickly deteriorates.

Ocher and some other colors can be added to this composition. In this case, it is necessary to use as little water as possible, as it negatively affects strength.

The paint dries very quickly and does not leave the slightest smell. Therefore, it is possible to cover the surface with two layers in one day.

To give the color more strength, after applying two layers, it is polished with pieces of coarse cloth.

STARCH AND PAINTING:

From 10 weight parts of wheat starch, filled with cold water, a composition is obtained that resembles thick sour cream in consistency.

Stirring constantly, boiled water is added until the composition of the desired density is formed. For greater strength, 1 part alum or borax can be added to the warm paste.

To prepare the paint, zinc white and any colored paint, vegetable or mineral, are added to the still hot paste.

Then zinc chloride is dissolved in water and a small amount of tartaric acid is added to it.

Before use, mix the first mixture with this solution. The amount of material and proportions do not matter much. The paint is applied in the usual way. It is low flammable, not afraid of dampness and cold water, but it can be washed off with hot water and soap.

POTATO PAINT:

Take 1 kilogram of potatoes and boil it. Peel while still hot, pour 4 large mugs of water. After that, it is necessary to knead everything into porridge and rub through a sieve so that no lumps remain. Add 1.5 kilograms of powdered chalk, which is pre-diluted in 4 cups of water. The result will be about 8 mugs of grayish, durable, good opaque and very cheap paint.

All of these paints have been tested and give excellent results.

* PROCESSING OF WOODEN (etc.) PRODUCTS:

1. In order to prevent the wooden product from cracking and crumbling into pieces, it was boiled for 1-2 hours in a solution of fly ash. After that, they dried it, and, if necessary, continued processing of finer details.

ASH LYE is an ancient recipe of our ancestors, used both for washing woven products and for processing wooden products.

Alkali is made simply - firewood is burned (best of all - birch) to the state of white ash (ash). Ash (ash) is filled with water, into which, during soaking, all alkaline groups of substances pass.

Both the house and the chapel are all made of wood.

Russia has long been considered a country of wood: there were plenty of vast, mighty forests around. Rusichi, as historians note, lived for centuries in the "wooden age". Frames and residential buildings, baths and barns, bridges and fences, gates and wells were built from wood. And the most common name of the Russian settlement - the village - said that the houses and buildings here were made of wood. Almost universal availability, simplicity and ease of processing, relative cheapness, strength, good thermal properties, as well as the rich artistic and expressive possibilities of wood brought this natural material to the forefront in the construction of residential buildings. Far from the last role was played here by the fact that wooden buildings could be erected in quite short time. High-speed wood construction in Russia was generally highly developed, which indicates a high level of organization of carpentry. It is known, for example, that even churches, the largest buildings in Russian villages, were sometimes erected "in one day", which is why they were called ordinary.

In addition, log houses could be easily dismantled, transported over a considerable distance and put back in a new place. In the cities there were even special markets where prefabricated log cabins and entire wooden houses with all interior decoration were sold "for export". In winter, such houses were shipped straight "from the sleigh" disassembled, and it took no more than two days to assemble and caulk. By the way, all the necessary building elements and details of log houses were sold right there, on the market here you could buy pine logs for a residential log house (the so-called "mansion"), and squared beams, and solid roofing boards, and various boards " dining rooms", "shop", for sheathing the "inside" of the hut, as well as "beams", piles, door decks. There were also household items on the market, with which the interior of a peasant hut was usually saturated: simple rustic furniture, tubs, boxes, small "wood chips" up to the smallest wooden spoon.

However, with all the positive qualities of wood, one of its very serious drawbacks - susceptibility to decay - made wooden structures relatively short-lived. Together with fires, a real scourge of wooden buildings, it significantly reduced the life of a log house - a rare hut stood for more than a hundred years. That is why coniferous species pine and spruce have found the greatest use in housing construction, the resinousness and density of wood of which provided the necessary resistance to decay. At the same time, in the North, larch was also used to build a house, and in a number of regions of Siberia, a log house was assembled from durable and dense larch, while all the interior decoration was made from Siberian cedar.

And yet, the most common material for housing construction was pine, in particular, upland pine or, as it was also called, "kondovaya". The log from it is heavy, straight, almost without knots and, according to the assurances of master carpenters, "does not hold damp." In one of the orderly records for the construction of housing, concluded in the old days between the owner-customer and the carpenters (and the word "orderly" comes from the Old Russian "row" agreement), it was quite clearly emphasized: "... carve a forest of pine, kind, vigorous , smooth, not knotty ... "

Timber was usually harvested in winter or early spring, while "the tree is sleeping and excess water has gone into the ground", while it is still possible to take out the logs by sledge. Interestingly, even now experts recommend logging for log houses in winter, when the wood is less susceptible to shrinkage, decay and warping. The material for the construction of housing was prepared either by the future owners themselves, or by hired master carpenters in accordance with the necessary need "as much as needed", as noted in one of the orders. In the case of "self-procurement" this was done with the involvement of relatives and neighbors. Such a custom, which has existed since ancient times in Russian villages, was called "help" ("cleaning"). The whole village usually gathered for the cleaning. This was reflected in the proverb: "Whoever called for help, he himself go."

They selected the trees very carefully, in a row, indiscriminately, they did not cut down, they took care of the forest. There was even such a sign: if you did not like three forests from the arrival in the forest, do not cut at all that day. There were also specific bans on logging associated with popular beliefs that were strictly enforced. For example, it was considered a sin to cut down trees in "sacred" groves, usually associated with a church or a cemetery; it was impossible to cut down old trees - they had to die their own, natural death. In addition, trees grown by man were not suitable for construction, it was impossible to use a tree that fell during felling "at midnight", that is, to the north, or hung in the crowns of other trees - it was believed that serious troubles and illnesses awaited residents in such a house and even death.

Logs for the construction of a log house were usually selected with a thickness of about eight inches in diameter (35 cm), and for the lower crowns of a log house - even thicker ones, up to ten inches (44 cm). Often the contract stated: "but do not put less than seven inches." We note in passing that today the recommended diameter of a log for a chopped wall is 22 cm. The logs were taken to the village and stacked in "bonfires", where they lay until spring, after which the trunks were sanded, that is, removed, scraped off the thawed bark with a plow or a long scraper, which was an arcuate blade with two handles.

Tools of Russian carpenters:

1 - wood ax,
2 - potyos,
3 - carpenter's ax.

When processing construction timber, they used different kinds axes. So, when felling trees, a special wood-cutting ax with a narrow blade was used, for further work, a carpenter's ax with a wide oval blade and the so-called "potes". In general, possession of an ax was mandatory for every peasant. "The ax is the head of the whole thing," they said among the people. Without an ax, wonderful monuments of folk architecture would not have been created: wooden churches, bell towers, mills, huts. Without this simple and versatile tool, many tools of peasant labor, details of rural life, and familiar household items would not have appeared. The ability to carpentry (that is, to "rally" logs in a building) from a ubiquitous and necessary craft in Russia turned into a true art - carpentry.

In the Russian chronicles we find not quite usual combinations - "cut down the church", "cut down the mansions". Yes, and carpenters were often called "cutters". And the point here is that in the old days they did not build houses, but "chopped", doing without saws and nails. Although the saw has been known in Russia since ancient times, it was usually not used in the construction of a house - sawn logs and boards absorb moisture much more quickly and easily than chopped and hewn ones. The master builders did not sawn, but chopped off the ends of the logs with an ax, because the sawn logs are “pulled by the wind” - they crack, which means they break down faster. In addition, when processing with an ax, the log from the ends seems to be "clogged" and rots less. The boards were made by hand from logs - at the end of the log and along its entire length, notches were marked, wedges were driven into them and split into two halves, from which wide boards were hewn - "tesnitsa". For this, a special ax with a wide blade and a one-sided cut was used - "potes". In general, the carpentry tools were quite extensive - here, along with axes and staples, there were special "adzes" for choosing grooves, chisels and clearings for punching holes in logs and beams, "features" for drawing parallel lines.

When hiring carpenters to build a house, the owners specified in detail the most important requirements for future construction, which was scrupulously noted in the contract. First of all, the necessary qualities of the scaffolding, its diameter, processing methods, as well as the timing of the start of construction were recorded here. Then a detailed description of the house to be built was given, the space-planning structure of the dwelling was highlighted, and the dimensions of the main premises were regulated. “Put me a new hut,” it is written in an old order, four fathoms without an elbow and with corners, that is, about six and a quarter meters, chopped “in the oblo”, with the rest. Since no drawings were made during the construction of the house, in the construction contracts the vertical dimensions of the dwelling and its individual parts were determined by the number of logs-crowns laid in the log house - "and twenty-three rows up to the chickens." The horizontal dimensions were regulated by the most commonly used long log - usually it was about three fathoms "between the corners" - about six and a half meters. Often in order, information was even given about individual architectural and structural elements and details: "to make doors on the jambs and windows on the jambs, as much as the owner orders to do." Sometimes samples, analogues, examples from the immediate environment were directly named, focusing on which the masters had to do their work: ".. and make those upper rooms and the hallway, and the porch, like Ivan Olferyev's small upper rooms were made at the gate." The entire document often ended with a recommendation of a disciplinary order, instructing the craftsmen not to quit work until it was completely completed, not to postpone or delay the construction that had begun: "And do not leave until the completion of that good work."

The beginning of the construction of a dwelling in Russia was associated with certain terms regulated by special rules. It was considered best to start building a house during Great Lent (early spring) and so that the construction process would include the Trinity holiday in terms of time; remember the proverb: "Without the Trinity, a house is not built." It was impossible to start construction on the so-called "hard days" - on Monday, Wednesday, Friday, and also on Sunday. Favorable for the start of construction was considered the time, "when the month is filled" after the new moon.

The construction of the house was preceded by special and rather solemnly formalized rituals, in which the most important, most essential for the peasant earthly and heavenly phenomena were reflected, the forces of nature acted in a symbolic form in them, various "local" deities were present. According to an old custom, when laying a house, money was put in the corners "to live richly," and inside the log house, in its middle or in the "red" corner, they put a freshly cut tree (birch, mountain ash or Christmas tree) and often hung an icon on it. This tree personified the "world tree", known to almost all peoples and ritually marking the "center of the world", symbolizing the idea of ​​growth, development, connection of the past (roots), present (trunk) and future (crown). It remained in the log house until the completion of construction. Another interesting custom is connected with the designation of the corners of the future dwelling: in the supposed four corners of the hut, the owner poured four heaps of grain in the evening, and if the next morning the grain turned out to be untouched, the place chosen for building the house was considered good. If someone disturbed the grain, then they were usually wary of building on such a "doubtful" place.

Throughout the construction of the house, another custom, very ruinous for future owners, was strictly observed, which, unfortunately, has not gone into the past and today is quite frequent and plentiful "treat" of master carpenters building a house in order to "appease" them. The construction process was repeatedly interrupted by "hand", "stowing", "mat", "rafter" and other feasts. Otherwise, the carpenters could be offended and do something wrong, or even just "play a joke" - lay out the log house in such a way that "it will buzz in the walls."

The structural basis of the log house was a four-sided log cabin, which consisted of logs - "crowns" horizontally stacked on top of each other. An important feature This design is that during its natural shrinkage and subsequent precipitation, the gaps between the crowns disappeared, the wall became more dense and monolithic. To ensure the horizontality of the log crowns, the logs were stacked in such a way that the butt ends alternated with the top ends, that is, thicker ones with thinner ones. In order for the crowns to fit well to each other, a longitudinal groove was selected in each of the adjacent logs. In the old days, the groove was made in the lower log, on its upper side, but since with this solution water got into the recess and the log quickly rotted, they began to make a groove on the lower side of the log. This technique has been preserved to this day.

a - "in oblo" with cups in the lower logs
b - "in oblo" with cups in the upper logs

In the corners, the log house was connected with special cuts with original log "locks". Experts say that there were several dozen types and variants of cuttings in Russian wooden architecture. The most commonly used fellings were "in oblo" and "in the paw". When cutting "into the oblo" (that is, rounded) or "into a simple corner", the logs were connected in such a way that their ends protruded outward, outside the frame, forming the so-called "remainder", which is why this technique was also called cutting with the remainder. The protruding ends well protected the corners of the hut from freezing. This method, one of the most ancient, was also called cutting "into a bowl", or "into a cup", since special recesses of the "cup" were chosen to fasten the logs in them. In the old days, cups, as well as longitudinal grooves in logs, were cut down in the underlying log - this is the so-called "cutting into the lining", but later they began to use a more rational method with cutting in the upper log "in the overlay", or "in the hood", which is not allowed moisture to linger in the "castle" of the log house. Each cup was fitted exactly to the shape of the log it came into contact with. This was necessary to ensure the tightness of the most important and most vulnerable to water and cold nodes of the log house - its corners.

Another common method of cutting "in the paw", without a trace, made it possible to increase the horizontal dimensions of the log house, and with them the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe hut, in comparison with cutting "in the open", since here the "lock" fastening the crowns was made at the very end of the log . However, it was more complex in execution, required highly qualified carpenters, and therefore cost more than traditional felling with the release of the ends of the logs "corners". For this reason, and also due to the fact that cutting "in the field" took less time, the vast majority of peasant houses in Russia were cut in this way.

The lower, "collar" crown was often placed directly on the ground. In order for this initial crown - "lower" - to be less prone to decay, and also in order to create a solid and reliable foundation for the house, thicker and more resinous logs were selected for it. For example, in Siberia, larch was used for the lower rims - a very dense and fairly durable wood material.

Often, large boulder stones were placed under the corners and middles of the embedded crowns, or scraps of thick logs - “chairs” were dug into the ground, which were treated with resin or burned to protect against decay. Sometimes for this purpose thick chopping blocks or "paws" were used - uprooted stumps placed down by the roots. During the construction of a residential hut, they tried to lay the "salary" logs so that the lower crown was tightly adjacent to the ground, often "for warmth" it was even lightly sprinkled with earth. After the completion of the "hut salary" - laying the first crown, they began to assemble the house "on the moss", in which the grooves of the log house for greater tightness were laid with a "mokryshnik" torn in the lowlands and dried with swamp moss - this was called "suede" log house. It happened that for greater strength, the moss was "twisted" with tows - combed out fibers of flax and hemp. But since, when drying, the moss nevertheless crumbled, at a later time they began to use tow for this purpose. And now, experts recommend caulking the seams between the logs of a log house with tow for the first time during the construction process and then again, in a year and a half, when the final shrinkage of the log house occurs.

Under the residential part of the house, either a low underground was arranged, or the so-called "basement" or "podyzbitsa" - the basement, which differed from the underground in that it was quite high, did not go deep, as a rule, into the ground and had a direct exit to the outside through a low door. Putting the hut on the basement, the owner protected it from the cold coming from the ground, protected the residential part and the entrance to the house from snow drifts in winter and spring floods, created additional utility and utility rooms right under the house. A pantry was usually arranged in the basement, often it served as a cellar. Other utility rooms were also equipped in the basement, for example, in areas where handicrafts were developed, a small workshop could be located in the basement. They also kept small livestock or poultry in the basement. Sometimes the podyzbitsa was also used for housing. There were even two-story, or "double-lived" huts for two "living". But still, in the vast majority of cases, the basement was a non-residential, utility floor, and they lived in a dry and warm "top", raised above the cold, damp earth. This method of setting the residential part of the house on a high basement was most widespread in the northern regions, where very harsh climatic conditions required additional insulation of residential premises and reliable and isolation from frozen ground, while in the middle lane they often arranged a low and convenient underground for storing products.

Having completed the equipment of the basement or underground, work began on the installation of the floor of the hut. To do this, first of all, "crossbeams" were cut into the walls of the house - rather powerful beams on which the floor rested. As a rule, they were made four or less often three, parallel to the main facade of the hut, two near the walls and two or one in the middle. To keep the floor warm and not blown, it was made double. The so-called "black" floor was laid directly on the beams, collecting it from a thick slab with humps up, or log rolling, and covered "for warmth" with a layer of earth. From above, a clean floor was laid from wide boards.

Moreover, such a double, insulated floor was made, as a rule, over a cold basement-basement, a sub-basement, and a regular, single floor was arranged above the underground, which contributed to the penetration of heat from the living quarters into the underground, where vegetables and various products were stored. The boards of the upper, "clean" floor were tightly fitted to each other.

Male Roof Construction:

1 - chill (with a helmet)
2 - towel (anemone)
3 - prichelina
4 - ochelie
5 - red window
6 - drag window
7 - stream
8 - chicken
9 - slightly
10 - tes

Usually the floorboards were laid along the line of the window entrance, from the entrance door to the living room to the main facade of the hut, explaining that with this arrangement, the floor boards are less destroyed, less chipped at the edges and last longer than with a different layout. In addition, according to the peasants, such a floor is more convenient for revenge.

The number of interfloor ceilings - "bridges" in the house being built was determined even in order: "... yes, in the same upper rooms, lay three bridges inside." The laying of the walls of the hut was completed by installation at the height where they were going to make the ceiling of the "skull" or "underpressure" crown, in which they cut the ceiling beam - the "matitsa". Her location was also often noted in regular records: "and put that hut on the seventeenth matitsa."

The strength and reliability of the foundation matrix - the foundation of the ceiling - was given great importance. The people even said: "A thin uterus to everything - a house of confusion." The installation of the mother was very important point in the process of building a house, it ended with the assembly of a log house, after which the construction entered the final phase. Laying the floor and installing the roof. That is why the laying of the mother was accompanied by special rituals and the next "mat" treat for carpenters. Often, the carpenters themselves reminded the "forgetful" owners of this: when setting up the mother, they shouted: "The uterus is cracking, it does not go," and the owners were given to arrange a feast. Sometimes, raising the mother, a pie baked for the occasion was tied to it.

The matitsa was a powerful tetrahedral beam, on which "ceilings" of thick boards or "humpbacks" were laid, placed flat down. In order to prevent the matrix from bending under its weight, its lower side was often cut off along a curve. It is curious that this technique is still used today in the construction of log houses - this is called "carve out a building rise". Having finished laying the ceiling - "ceilings", they tied the frame under the roof, laying "cold" or "cool" logs on top of the cranial crown, with which the ceilings were fixed.

In the Russian folk dwelling, functional, practical and artistic issues were closely interconnected, one complemented and followed from the other. The fusion of "utility" and "beauty" in the house, the inseparability of constructive and architectural and artistic solutions manifested themselves with particular force in the organization of the completion of the hut. By the way, it was at the end of the house that folk craftsmen saw the main and main beauty of the entire building. The design and decoration of the roof of a peasant house still amaze with the unity of practical and aesthetic aspects.

Surprisingly simple, logical and artistically expressive is the design of the so-called nail-free male roof - one of the oldest, most widely used in the northern regions of Russia. It was supported by the log pediments of the end walls of the house - "recesses". After the upper, "thick" crown of the log house, the logs of the main and rear facades of the hut gradually shortened, rising to the very top of the ridge. These logs were called "males" because they stood "on their own". Long log slabs were cut into the triangles of the opposite gables of the house, which were the base of the roof "lattice". The tops of the gables were connected by the main, "princely" slab, which was the completion of the entire gable roof structure.

Natural hooks - "hens" - uprooted and hewn trunks of young spruce trees were attached to the lower slabs. They were called "hens" because the craftsmen gave their bent ends the shape of bird heads. The chickens supported special gutters for draining water "streams", or "water outlets" - logs hollowed out along the entire length. They rested against the clefts of the roof, which were laid on the slabs-purlins. Usually the roof was double, with a lining of birch bark - "rocks", which well protected against moisture penetration.

In the ridge of the roof, on the upper ends of the roofing notches, they “slammed down” with a “shell” - a massive trough-shaped log, the end of which went out onto the main facade, crowning the entire building. This is a heavy log, also called "cold" (from ancient name roofs "slammed"), pinched the gaps, keeping them from being blown away by the wind. The front, butt end of the okhlupny was usually designed in the form of a horse's head (hence the "horse") or, less often, a bird. In the most northern regions, the helmet was sometimes given the shape of a deer's head, often placing genuine deer antlers on it. Thanks to their developed plasticity, these sculptural images were well "read" against the sky and were visible from afar.

To maintain a wide roof overhang from the side of the main facade of the hut, an interesting and ingenious design technique was used - a consistent lengthening of the ends of the logs of the upper crowns extending beyond the frame. In this case, powerful brackets were obtained, on which the front part of the roof rested. Protruding far ahead of the log wall of the house, such a roof reliably protected the crowns of the log house from rain and snow. The brackets that supported the roof were called "releases", "helps" or "falls". Usually, a porch was arranged on the same outlet brackets, bypass galleries - "amusements" were laid, balconies were equipped. Powerful log outlets, decorated with laconic carvings, enriched the austere appearance of the peasant house, giving it even greater monumentality.

In the new, later type of Russian peasant dwelling, which became widespread mainly in the regions of the middle zone, the roof already had a covering on the rafters, while the log pediment with males was replaced by a plank filling. With such a solution, a sharp transition from the plastically saturated rough-textured surface of a log cabin to a flat and smooth plank pediment, being tectonically quite justified, nevertheless did not look compositionally inexpressive, and master carpenters planted to cover it with a rather wide frontal board, richly decorated with carved ornaments. Subsequently, a frieze developed from this board, which went around the entire building. It should be noted, however, that even in this type of peasant house, for a long time, some of the earlier buildings were also preserved with brackets-outlets, decorated with simple carvings, and carved porches with "towels". This determined mainly the repetition of the traditional pattern of distribution of carved decorative decoration on the main facade of the dwelling.

Erecting a log house, creating a traditional hut, Russian master carpenters for centuries discovered, mastered and improved specific woodworking techniques, gradually developed strong, reliable and artistically expressive architectural and structural units, original and unique details. However, they made full use of positive traits wood, skillfully revealing and revealing in their buildings its unique opportunities, in every way emphasizing its natural origin. This further contributed to the consistent entry of buildings into the natural environment, the harmonious merging of man-made structures with pristine, untouched nature.

The main elements of the Russian hut are surprisingly simple and organic, their shape is logical and beautifully “drawn”, they accurately and fully express the “work” of a wooden log, log house, roof of a house. Benefit and beauty merge here into a single and indivisible whole. The expediency, the practical necessity of any made, is clearly expressed in their strict plasticity, laconic decor, in the general structural completeness of the entire building.

Ingenuously and truthfully, the general constructive solution of a peasant house is a powerful and reliable log wall; large, solid cuts in the corners; small, decorated with platbands and shutters, windows; a wide roof with an intricate ridge and carved piers, and also a porch and a balcony, it would seem, that's all. But how much hidden tension is in this simple construction, how much strength is in the tight joints of the logs, how tightly they "hold" each other! For centuries, this orderly simplicity has been isolated, crystallized, this only possible structure, reliable and captivating with its skeptical purity of line and forms, harmonious and close to the surrounding nature.

Calm confidence emanates from simple Russian huts, they have firmly and thoroughly settled in their native land. When looking at the buildings of old Russian villages, darkened from time to time, the feeling does not leave the feeling that they, once created by man and for man, live at the same time some kind of their own, separate life, closely connected with the life of the nature surrounding them - they are so akin to that place where they were born. The living warmth of their walls, the laconic silhouette, the strict monumentality of proportional relations, some kind of "unartificiality" of their whole appearance make these buildings an integral and organic part of the surrounding forests and fields, of everything that we call Russia.

The first metals that people learned to handle were copper and gold. The reason for this was the fact that both copper and gold are found in nature not only in ores, but also in pure form. People found whole nuggets of gold and pieces of copper and with the help of a hammer gave them the desired shape. Moreover, these metals did not even need to be melted. And although we still don't know exactly when people learned to use metals, scientists can vouch for the fact that man first used copper around the fifth millennium, and gold no later than the fourth millennium BC.

Around the third millennium BC, people discovered some of the most important properties of metals. By that time, man had already become acquainted with silver and lead, but copper was still used most often, mainly because of its strength, and, perhaps, also because copper was found in abundance.

Having started working with metals, people learned to give them the necessary forms and make dishes, tools, and weapons out of them. But as soon as a person got acquainted with metals, he could not help but pay attention to their useful properties. If the metal is heated, it becomes softer, and if it is cooled again, it hardens again. Man has learned to pour, boil and melt metals. In addition, people learned how to extract metals from ores, because they are much more common in nature than nuggets.

Later, man discovered tin, and having learned to mix and melt copper and tin, he began to make bronze. In the period from 3500 to about 1200 BC, bronze became the main material from which weapons and tools were made. This period of human history is called the Bronze Age.

Finding meteorites that fell on our Earth, people learned about iron - and long before they learned how to get it from terrestrial ores. Approximately in 1200 BC, man stepped over this barrier too - he learned to melt iron. This skill quickly spread throughout the world. Iron has replaced copper in almost all areas. This was the beginning of the next, Iron Age. By the way, during the time of the power of the Roman Empire, people knew gold, copper, silver, tin, iron, lead and mercury.

When was metal first used?

About 6,000 years ago, man lived in the Stone Age. It is named so because the main part of the tools of labor and hunting was made of stone. Man has not yet learned to make them out of metal.

Most likely, the first metals that man began to use were copper and gold. The reason is that these metals in nature existed both in pure form and as part of the ore. A man found nuggets of copper and gold and could give them various shapes without melting. We cannot say exactly when man discovered these metals, but it is known that copper began to be used at the turn of the fifth millennium BC. Shortly before the onset of the fourth millennium BC, gold was also used.

By the third millennium BC, man had already learned a lot in working with metal.

By this time, silver and lead had also been discovered, but nevertheless, in most cases, copper was the most commonly used metal due to its strength and prevalence.

At first, man learned to forge useful things from metal - dishes, tools and weapons. In the process of forging metal, he discovered the process of hardening, melting, casting and smelting. He also learned how to get copper from ore, which was more abundant than nuggets. Later, man discovered tin and learned to mix it with copper - a harder bronze was obtained. From about 3500 to 1200 BC, bronze was the most important material for making tools and weapons. This period is called the Bronze Age.

Man learned about the existence of iron by finding meteorites long before he discovered how to smelt it from ore. By 1200 BC, man had learned to work iron, and his skills were passed down from generation to generation. Iron has largely replaced bronze. This was the beginning of the Iron Age.

By the time of the rise of the Roman Empire, seven metals were known to man: gold, copper, silver, lead, tin, iron, and mercury.

When did the first saws appear?

Historians attribute the appearance of the saw to the Bronze Age, when people learned how to process metal. Perhaps this is so. The main issue was the construction of ships. All early ships were wooden. To build a ship, you need boards. And only boards. It is impossible to build a ship from round trunks. You can’t get a board out of the trunk with an ax, and if you do, it’s a very laborious process. But, as we know, ships were very common in ancient Greece. They, their fleet, became the basis of the ancient Greek colonization of the entire Mediterranean. The Greeks built a lot of ships, which means they needed a lot of boards. So, there were saws then. In ancient Greece, iron and steel tools were already quite used. Since there were swords and axes, there could have been saws as well.

Question - what? Most likely, these were hacksaw-type saws, that is, just long serrated knives. And as an option for their development - two-handed saws, for cutting bulky trunks. How old sawmills looked like can be seen in old drawings or in historical films. One man from above, one from below, there is a log in the middle, and they are sawing it. The process is laborious and monotonous. Naturally, any monotonous process is easier to automate, and this is how the first mechanical sawmills, driven by water power, appeared. Then, obviously, by the power of steam.

But the most interesting thing in this business is the appearance of a circular or circular saw. In sawing, the invention of the circular saw is as important as the invention of the wheel! There is no exact information about when and where the circular saw first appeared either. However, it can be assumed that these are the Middle Ages, the Middle Ages or the late Middle Ages, when there was a real explosion of all kinds of mechanical inventions. Until the advent of manual band saws.

The next step in the development of the "saw" business was the processing of metals with the help of saws. This was facilitated by the emergence of heavy-duty metals and alloys, as well as the technology of fixing diamond tools and abrasives on the cutting surfaces of saws. Such saws have long been sawing rails, cutting other massive metal volumes. There are also large machines that do these processes.

How did people process metals?

The first metals that people learned to mine and process were gold, copper and bronze. Metalworking was carried out with impact tools, the so-called cold bending method. Raw-blast furnaces were used to obtain many types of metals. In order to give the details the correct shape, the ancient masters polished the blank with a stone for a long time. After that, a new method was invented - casting. Detachable and non-detachable forms were cut out of wood or stone, then an alloy was poured into them, after which the metal cooled down, a finished product was obtained.

For the manufacture of figured products, a closed mold was used, for this a product model was molded from wax, then it was covered with clay and placed in an oven, where the wax was melted, and the clay repeated the exact model. Metal was poured into the void, after complete cooling, the form was broken and the craftsmen received a product of complex shape.

Over time, new ways of working with metal were comprehended, such as soldering and welding, forging and casting.

Today, there are new technologies that allow you to process metal much faster. Machining is carried out on lathes, which allows you to get the finished product with high accuracy.

Turning is the most popular way. It is produced in special machine tools, which are configured to perform work from a given type of metal. Lathes, in automatic and semi-automatic mode, are used for series production products with a rotating body shape.

CNC machines are also used for metalworking. program management. These machines are fully automated and the main purpose of the operator is to control the operation, set up the equipment, set the workpiece and remove the finished product.

Milling is a mechanical process for processing metals on universal milling machines, which requires an experienced specialist with deep knowledge in the field of metallurgy and metal processing methods.

For execution milling work High Quality, it is important to use high-precision equipment. The degree of milling directly depends on the efficiency and productivity. Therefore, inaccuracies and errors in this matter are simply unacceptable.

Sources: otvet.mail.ru, potomy.ru, esperanto-plus.ru, operator-cnc.ru, www.protochka.su

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