Communication is extremely diverse in its forms and types. Ways, areas and dynamics of communication are determined social functions people entering it, their position in the system of social relations, belonging to a particular community. Communication is governed by factors related to production, exchange and needs, as well as the laws, rules, norms that have developed in society. social institutions and others. Based on this, there are several grounds for separation various kinds communication.

1. According to the sign systems used, there are:

VERBAL (verbal) communication,which in turn is divided into oral and written speech;

NONVERBAL (wordless) communication,playing an extremely important role in our life. According to some reports, we receive from 60 to 80% of the information from the interlocutor through a non-verbal channel.

2. According to the nature and content, they distinguish:

FUNCTIONAL-ROLE communication, which involves connections between its participants performing certain social roles at time intervals of various durations. Partners in this communication are bound by mutual obligations in relation to each other: a doctor is a patient, a leader is a subordinate, a lecturer is a listener, a teacher is a student. Basically, functional-role communication is conditioned by the official positions of its participants. So, in production, the foreman carries out the order of the head of the shop and plays the social role of a subordinate, and, having returned home, in the relationship between father and children, he already occupies a leading position.

BUSINESS communication is a situation where the goal of interaction is to reach a clear agreement or agreement. Most often, such interaction occurs between people who are not in close interpersonal relationships with each other (between colleagues, two businessmen, a boss and a subordinate, etc.), and the status of each of the partners in relation to the other is clearly defined. In such situations, the subject or occasion that led to communication is important, without which business conversation cannot take place.

ANONYMOUS communication is the interaction between unfamiliar or unrelated personal relationships of people. These can be temporary connections between subjects in which they act as citizens, residents of one microdistrict, passengers of transport, spectators of one hall. They meet, come into contact with each other and disperse. Communication partners remain anonymous.

INFORMAL communication is all kinds of personal contacts outside of official relations. This is, for example, communication between friends. Its feature is selectivity in relation to a partner.

INTIMATE-PERSONAL communication is in many ways unique and specific. It is possible only when the partners within the situation that has arisen feel on an equal footing, are equally interested in establishing and maintaining a trusting and deep contact. Most often, such communication occurs between close people and is largely the result of previous relationships.

3. There are such types of activities where communication occupies a leading, target, professionally significant position and goes into the functional category.

In such cases, there are:

Diagnostic communication, the purpose of which is to form a certain idea about the interlocutor or get some information from him (such is the communication of a doctor with a patient, etc.). The partners are in different positions: one asks, the other answers. To get a complete answer, the questioner must correctly ask questions, taking into account his own status and the status of the respondent, his willingness to give answers, etc.

Pedagogical communication- an integral system (techniques and skills) of the socio-psychological interaction between the teacher and the students, which contains the exchange of information, educational influences and the organization of relationships using communicative means.

Educational communication is a situation in which one of the participants purposefully influences the other, quite clearly imagines the desired result, that is, he knows what he wants to convince the interlocutor, what he wants to teach him, etc. Such conversations are possible when the teacher has situational or permanent authority and knowledge.

Distinguish between communication of the first and second kind. AT joint activities a person establishes two-way contact with other people: transmits information, receives it from a partner, achieves mutual understanding. This is communication of the first kind, acting as communication, as a side of joint activity.

A person is not limited in joint activities only by establishing contact. Having produced a material or ideal product (a constructed building, a grown plant, an expressed thought, a composed and sung song), a person through it transfers his individuality to other people, fixes and continues himself in other people. Relations between people are mediated by this product, communication arises as the production of a common thing that equally belongs to those who produce and those who consume this product. Here, joint activity is a side of communication. Communication, as a continuation of oneself in others, is communication of the second kind. Thus communication – part of the activity, and the activity – part of communication. In all cases they form a unity.

In communication, the following aspects are distinguished: content, purpose and means.

The content of the communicationinformation that is transmitted from one living being to another in interindividual contacts. The content of communication can be information about the internal motivational or emotional state of a living being. One person can transfer information to another about cash needs, counting on potential participation in their satisfaction. Through communication, data on their emotional states (satisfaction, joy, anger, sadness, suffering, etc.) can be transmitted from one living being to another, aimed at setting the living being up for contacts in a certain way. The same information is transmitted from person to person and serves as a means of interpersonal attunement. In relation to an angry or suffering person, for example, we behave differently than in relation to someone who is benevolent and feels joy. The content of communication can be information about the state external environment, transmitted from one creature to another, for example, signals of danger or the presence somewhere nearby of positive, biologically significant factors, say, food. In humans, the content of communication is much broader than in animals. People exchange information with each other, representing knowledge about the world, acquired experience, abilities, skills and abilities. Human communication is multi-subject, it is the most diverse in its inner content.

The purpose of communication is this is what a person has this type of activity for. In animals, the purpose of communication may be to incite another living being to certain actions, a warning that it is necessary to refrain from any action. The mother, for example, warns the cub of danger by voice or movement; some animals in the herd can warn others that they have received vital signals.

A person has an increasing number of communication goals. In addition to those listed above, they include the transfer and acquisition of knowledge about the world, training and education, the coordination of reasonable actions of people in their joint activities, the establishment and clarification of personal and business relationships, and much more. If in animals the goals of communication usually do not go beyond the satisfaction of their biological needs, then in humans they are a means of satisfying many different needs: social, cultural, cognitive, creative, aesthetic, the needs of intellectual growth, moral development and a number of others. Based on this, the main goals of communication are distinguished:

contact, the purpose of which is to establish contact as a state of mutual readiness to receive and transmit a message and maintain a relationship in the form of constant mutual orientation;

information messaging,i.e., the reception and transmission of any information in response to a request, as well as the exchange of opinions, ideas, decisions, etc.;

incentive stimulationthe activity of the communication partner, directing him to perform certain actions;

coordination - mutual orientation and coordination of actions in the organization of joint activities;

understanding - not only an adequate perception of the meaning of the message, but understanding by partners of each other (their intentions, attitudes, experiences, states, etc.);

emotive - excitement necessary emotional experiences in a partner (“exchange of emotions”), as well as a change with his help in one’s own experiences and states;

relationship building- awareness and forcing one's place in the system of role, status, business.

influencing - a change in the state, behavior, personal and semantic formations of a partner, including his intentions, attitudes, opinions, decisions, ideas, needs, actions, activity, etc.

The means of communication is the means by which people interact with each other or exchange information. The means of communication can be facial expressions, gestures, pantomime, various signs depicted on something and perceived visually, speech sounds, other sounds that carry any information and much more. The means of communication also include the behavior of a person with which he accompanies his speech. This acts as a kind of background for communication: touching, shaking hands, position, appearance of a person (facial expression, demeanor, voice timbre), etc.

Analysis various concepts social interaction showed that the meaning of the term "interaction" or interaction in them is extremely ambiguous.

We will understand by interaction in the process of communication interdependent exchange of actions, behavioral reactions and mental states, which is carried out by communication partners in order to organize their joint activities.

The essence of interaction lies in the fact that in the process of joint activity and communication between people there is a contact due to the individual characteristics of communication partners, the situation, the dominant behavioral strategies, the goals of the participants in the interaction and possible contradictions. At the same time, the actions of each individual are always focused on another person and depend on him.

The interactive side of communication is essentially the psychological impact of one person (a group of people) on the psyche of another person (a group of people). The result of this kind of penetration are changes in individual or group views, motives, attitudes, attitudes and states. These changes may be temporary, transitory, or permanent.

In the process of business communication, one partner constantly influences the other in order to evoke an appropriate reaction in him, prompting him to take certain actions. Such interaction can be carried out vertically (supervisor - subordinate). So, the leader influences the subordinate, giving orders and recommendations, receiving "feedback", i.e. control information from the subordinate about the performance of tasks and evaluating the work performed. The subordinate, in turn, also influences the leader. Interaction can also be carried out horizontally - between employees of equal status. It is important to emphasize that the behavior of participants in joint activities is determined by their objective interdependence.

In psychological terms, the main content of communication is the impact on the partner. When describing it, the terms of actions are most often used. For example: "He put pressure on me, but I did not succumb", "He adapted to me", etc. When communicating, there is a constant reaction to the actions of another. It manifests itself in positive emotions when agreeing and negative emotions when disagreeing with the partner's actions. The reaction to the actions of the interlocutor is manifested in requests, suggestions, instructions, the expression of opinion, the issuance of information.

The reaction to the actions of a communication partner can be different and depends on how we perceive him and evaluate his actions. In one case, it may seem that the partner is pushing us towards something, and we consciously or unconsciously resist its influence, in the other - that we are acting "at the same time", in the third - that the partner affects our interests and we defend them, etc. . Behind words are actions. When communicating, we constantly answer the question for ourselves: "What is he doing?", and our behavior is based on the received answer.

Communication partners as the main components of the interaction process.

The main components of the interaction process in business communication are, first of all, the hundred participants themselves, their mutual connection and influence on each other.

The effectiveness of interaction largely depends on the compatibility of its subjects. Compatibility can take place at different levels: physiological, psychophysiological, social, etc. Psychological compatibility in a social group is understood as the optimal combination of the properties of the participants in the interaction, the ability of the group in this composition to work without conflict and in concert.

In the same conditions of activity, different people behave differently. Some successfully work all alone, others need colleagues, employees. In the case of psychological compatibility, psychological stress is either absent or easily removed with constant communication.

This phenomenon largely depends on individual features participants in the interaction. So, the most compatible are people with a high communicative need, people with different practical intelligence. Emotional people prefer to deal with their own kind; people with strong nervous system prefer to deal with partners who are weaker in this regard. As a result of the research, social qualities of a person were identified that most clearly affect psychological compatibility: introversion - extraversion, mobility - rigidity, dominance - non-dominance.

Mobility and rigidity are qualities determined by the typological properties of a person, his temperament. Mobile people are dynamic and expressive. They treat change as positive side life. Rigid people prefer stability and stability in everything. They are solid, inhibited, perceive changes negatively. These types are practically incompatible either in relation to life or in terms of methods of action, and their communication is rarely effective.

Dominance is often referred to as hyperactivity, assertiveness and aggressiveness. A similar quality can develop in a person with high self-esteem. A non-dominant person, on the contrary, shows humility, lack of will, compliance and lack of initiative in interaction, such an interlocutor usually adapts to a communication partner. However, in the dominant-non-dominant pars, the problem of manipulation can arise.

Another indicator of the effectiveness of interaction is an adequate understanding of the situation and an adequate style of action in it.

Each situation dictates its own style of behavior and actions: in each of them, a person will “feed” himself in different ways. If one or another self-feed is not adequate, then the interaction is difficult. If a style of behavior is formed on the basis of actions in a particular situation, and then mechanically transferred to another situation, then, naturally, success cannot be guaranteed.

Strategy and tactics of interaction.

Strategy is a way of action of the subject to achieve main goal impact on a communication partner.

Depending on the goals, the following leading tactics of behavior in interaction are distinguished:

• 1) cooperation - a form of interaction in which both communication partners promote each other in achieving individual and common goals of joint activities;
• 2) confrontation - partners oppose each other in achieving individual goals, focusing only on their goals without taking into account the goals of the partner;
• 3) compromise interaction - communication partners in something contribute, but in something oppose each other;
• 4) thinning from interaction - partners try to avoid active interaction, leave contacts, take the risk of not achieving their own goals in order to exclude the gain of the other;
• 5) contrast interaction. one of the partners is trying to assist the other, and then actively counteracts him;
• 6) unidirectional assistance - one of the partners sacrifices his own goals and contributes to the goals of the other, who shirks cooperation.

American psychologists L. Steinberg and J. Miller analyzed the interaction from the positions of orientation to control and orientation to understanding.

Orientation to control involves the desire to control, manage the situation and the behavior of others, usually combined with the desire to dominate in interaction.

Comprehension orientation includes the desire to understand the situation and the behavior of others. It is associated with the desire to interact better and avoid conflicts, with ideas about the equality of partners in communication and the need to achieve mutual rather than one-sided satisfaction.

An analysis of the interaction in identifying these two orientations reveals some interesting patterns of communication. So, "controllers" and "understanders" adhere to completely different communication strategies.

The "controller" strategy the desire to force the partner to accept his plan of interaction, to impose his understanding of the situation. Quite often, this strategy really allows you to achieve control over the interaction.

"Reducer" strategy "implies adaptation to a partner.

It is significant that different orientations are associated with different distribution of positions in communication. Thus, "controllers" always strive for unequal interactions with subordinate and dominant positions of "vertical interaction". Orientation to understanding is more associated with equal horizontal interactions.

It should be noted that there are also reverse effects. For example, a person who is in communication at the very "top" position will necessarily be more of a "controller", in contrast to a situation in which he would be "below": the position obliges. Therefore, it must regulate the interaction.

Since any communication is carried out about a particular subject, the nature of the interaction is determined by the openness or closeness of the subject position.

Openness of communication this is the openness of the subject position in the sense of the ability to express one's point of view on the subject and the readiness to take into account the positions of others, and vice versa, closeness of communication means inability or unwillingness to disclose one's positions.

In addition to open and closed communication in its purest form, there are also mixed types:

• one of the parties tries to find out the position of the other side without disclosing its own. In the extreme version, it looks like this: "I ask questions!";
• communication, in which one of the interlocutors reveals to the partner all his "circumstances", counting on help, not being interested in the intentions of the other.

Both of these types of interaction are asymmetric, since communication is carried out from the unequal positions of partners.

When choosing a position in communication, all circumstances should be taken into account: the degree of trust in a partner, the possible consequences of open communication. And at the same time, as socio-psychological studies show, the maximum efficiency of business communication is achieved with its open nature.

When talking about communications in the narrow sense of the word, they primarily mean the fact that in the course of joint activity people exchange various ideas, ideas, interests, moods, feelings, attitudes, etc. all this can be considered as information, and then the communication process itself can be understood as a process of information exchange. In any consideration of human communication from the point of view of information theory, only the formal side of the matter is fixed: how information is transmitted, while in the conditions of human communication information is not only transmitted, but also formed, refined, developed.

Communication cannot be considered only as the sending of information by some transmitting system or as its reception by another system, because, in contrast to the simple "" movement of information "" between two devices, here we are dealing with the relationship of two individuals, each of which is an active subject: mutually informing them presupposes the establishment of joint activities. This means that each participant in the communicative process also assumes activity in his partner, he cannot consider him as an object. The other participant also appears as a subject, and hence it follows that when sending information to him, it is necessary to focus on him, i.e. analyze his motives, goals, attitudes (except for his own), ""address"" to him, in the words of V.N. Myasishchev. Schematically, communication can be depicted as an intersubjective process (S D S).

In the communicative process, there is not a simple movement of information, but at least an active exchange of it. The main "increase" in the specifically human exchange of information lies in the fact that here the significance of information plays a special role for each participant in communication, because people do not just "exchange" meanings, but, as A.N. Leontiev, at the same time, seeks to develop a common meaning .. this is possible only if the information is not only accepted, but also understood, comprehended. The essence of the communicative process is not just mutual information, but a joint comprehension of the subject. Therefore, in every communicative process, activity, communication and cognition are really given in unity.

The nature of the exchange of information between people is determined by the fact that partners can influence each other through a system of signs. The exchange of such information necessarily implies an impact on the behavior of the partner, i.e. the sign changes the state of the participants in the communicative process, in this sense, "" the sign in communication is like a tool in labor "". The communicative influence that arises here is nothing more than the psychological impact of one communicant on another in order to change his behavior. The effectiveness of communication is measured precisely by how successful this impact was. This means that during the exchange of information there is a change in the very type of relationship that has developed between the participants in communication. Nothing similar happens in "purely" information processes.

Communicative influence as a result of information exchange is possible only when the person sending the information (communicator) and the person receiving it (recipient) have a single or similar system of codification and decodification. To describe such a situation, social psychology borrows from linguistics the term "thesaurus", denoting the general system of meanings accepted by all members of the group. Even knowing the meanings of the same words, people can understand them differently: social, political, age characteristics can be the reason for this. Therefore, the communicators must have identical - in the case of sound speech - not only lexical and syntactic systems, but also the same understanding of the situation of communication. And this is possible only if communication is included in some general system of activity.

Means of communication. The transfer of any information is possible only through sign systems. There are several sign systems that are used in the communicative process, respectively, they can build a classification of communicative processes. Distinguish between verbal and non-verbal communications using different sign systems. Accordingly, there is a variety of types of communicative process.

Verbal communication uses human speech, natural sound language, as a sign system, i.e. a system of phonetic signs, including two principles: lexical and syntactic. Speech is the most universal means of communication, since when information is transmitted through speech, the meaning of the message is least of all lost. With the help of speech, information is encoded and decoded: the communicator encodes in the process of speaking, and the recipient decodes this information in the process of listening.

Through speech, not only "information moves", but the participants in communication influence each other in a special way, orient each other, convince each other, i.e. seek to achieve a specific change in behavior. There may be two different tasks in the orientation of a communication partner. A.A.Leontiev proposes to designate them as personal-speech orientation (PRO) and social-speech orientation (SRO), which reflects the content of communication.

Another type of communication includes the following basic sign systems. Optical-kinetic - gestures, facial expressions, pantomime. Para- and extralinguistic - vocalization system, i.e. voice quality, its range, tonality; the inclusion of pauses, other inclusions, laughter in speech; the pace of speech. The organization of space and time of the communicative process carries a semantic load as a component of the communicative side. visual contact. The totality of these tools is designed to perform the following functions: supplementing speech, replacing speech, representing the emotional states of partners in the communicative process.

An analysis of all non-verbal communication systems shows that they play a large supporting role in the communicative process. Possessing the ability not only to strengthen or weaken the verbal impact, all systems of verbal communication help to identify such an essential parameter of the communicative process as the intentions of its participants. Together with the verbal communication system, these systems provide the exchange of information that people need to organize joint activities.

Interactive side of communication. The interactive side of communication is a conditional term denoting the characteristics of those components of communication that are associated with the interaction of people, with the direct organization of their joint activities. Some authors simply identify communication and interaction, interpreting both as communication in the narrow sense of the word, others consider the relationship between interaction and communication as a relationship between the form of some process and its content. Sometimes they prefer to talk about the related, but still independent existence of communication as communication and interaction as interaction. Some of these discrepancies are generated by terminological difficulties, in particular, by the fact that the concept of communication is used either in a narrow or in a broad sense.

If we assume that communication in the broad sense of the word (as a reality of interpersonal and social relations) includes communication in the narrow sense of the word (as the exchange of information), then it is logical to allow such an interpretation of the interaction when it appears as another - in comparison with the communicative - side communication. Those. interaction is the side that captures not only the exchange of information, but also the organization of joint actions that allow partners to implement some common activity for them. Such a solution to the problem excludes the separation of interaction from communication, but also excludes their identification: communication is organized in the course of joint activity, "about" it, and it is in this process that people need to exchange information and the activity itself, i.e. develop forms and norms of joint actions.

In the course of joint activities, it is extremely important for participants not only to exchange information, but also to organize an ""exchange of actions"", to plan general activities. With this planning, such a regulation of the actions of one individual is possible "by "plans ripened in the head of another"", which makes the activity truly joint, when it is no longer a separate individual, but a group that will act as its carrier.

Interaction as an organization of joint activities. In social psychology, the meaning of interaction is revealed only if they are included in some common activity. The specific content of various forms of joint activity is a certain ratio of individual "contributions" that are made by the participants. So one of their schemes proposes to distinguish three possible forms: 1) when each participant does his part of the common work independently of the others - ""joint-individual activity""; 2) when a common task is performed sequentially by each participant - ""joint-successive activity""; 3) when there is a simultaneous interaction of each participant with all the others - ""joint-interacting activity"".

However, the task of studying the interaction is not exhausted by this. Just as in the case of the analysis of the communicative side of communication, a relationship was established between the nature of communication and the relations that exist between partners, here it is also necessary to trace how one or another system of interaction is associated with the relations that have developed between the participants in the interaction.

Public relations""given"" in interaction through that real social activity, of which interaction is a part. Interpersonal relations are also "given" in interaction: they determine both the type of interaction that occurs under given specific conditions, and the degree of expression of this type.

The emotional basis inherent in the system of interpersonal relations, which gives rise to various assessments, orientations, attitudes of partners, in a certain way "colors" the interaction. But at the same time, such an emotional coloring of interaction cannot fully determine the fact of its presence or absence: even in conditions of "bad" interpersonal relations in groups defined by a certain social activity, interaction necessarily exists. To what extent it is determined by interpersonal relations and, conversely, to what extent it is “subordinated” to the activity performed by the group, depends both on the level of development of this group and on that system. social relations in which this group exists. Therefore, consideration of the interaction taken out of the context of activity is meaningless.

When analyzing interaction, the fact that each participant is aware of his contribution to the overall activity is also important: it is this awareness that helps him adjust his strategy. Only under this condition can the psychological mechanism of interaction that arises on the basis of mutual understanding between its participants be revealed.

Methods of psychological influence . Socio-psychological impacts are due to the stay of the individual in various communities and, presented systemically, include: group impact; mass impact; social impact; planetary impact.

Influences are realized through a socio-cultural system in which communication performs the functions of a socio-psychological mechanism.

Communication gives rise to a number of unique socio-psychological mechanisms through which the phenomena of the social psyche are formed. Mechanisms such as infection, suggestion, persuasion, imitation, fashion.

Infection is an unconscious, spontaneous form of inclusion of a person in certain mental states. Infection is carried out by transmitting a mental attitude that has a large emotional charge, intensity of feelings and passions. The basis for the emergence of the effect of infection is the emotional impact in conditions of direct contact.

The functions of contagion are to increase group cohesion when such cohesion occurs; compensation for insufficient group cohesion. Contagion is empathy with the general mental state of a large group of people at the same time. There are the following forms of manifestation of infection: mass psychosis, sports excitement, religious ecstasy.

Suggestion is a socio-psychological mechanism of communication, focused on the formation of a general mental state and motivation for mass actions.

The perceptual side of communication. Of great importance is the fact how the communication partner is perceived, in other words, the process of perception by one person of another acts as a mandatory component communication and can conditionally be called the perceptual side of communication. The term "social perception" was first introduced by J. Bruner in 1947 during the development of the so-called new look to perception. Initially, social perception was understood as the social determination of perceptual processes. Later, researchers gave the concept a slightly different meaning: social perception began to be called the process of perceiving so-called social objects, which meant other people, social groups, large social communities. It is in this usage that the term has become entrenched in the socio-psychological literature. Therefore, the perception of a person by a person belongs, of course, to the field of social perception, but does not exhaust it.

If we represent the processes of social perception in full, then we get a very complex and branched scheme. It includes various options not only for the object, but also for the subject of perception. When the subject of perception is an individual, then he can perceive another individual belonging to "his" group; another individual belonging to a "foreign" group (interpersonal perception); your own group; "foreign" group. In the most general terms, we can say that the perception of another person means the perception of his external signs, their correlation with the personal characteristics of the perceived individual and the interpretation of his actions on this basis.

Effects, phenomena and mechanisms of interpersonal perception. Since a person always enters into communication as a person, to the extent that he is perceived by another person - a communication partner - also as a person. On the basis of the external side of behavior, we, as it were, ""read"" another person, decipher the meaning of his external data. The impressions that arise in this case play an important regulatory role in the process of communication.

The idea of ​​another person is closely related to the level of one's own self-consciousness. This connection is twofold: on the one hand, the richness of ideas about oneself determines the richness of ideas about another person, on the other hand, the more fully the other person is revealed, the more complete the idea of ​​oneself becomes. Comparison of oneself with another is carried out, as it were, from two sides: each of the partners likens himself to the other. This means that when building an interaction strategy, everyone has to take into account not only the needs, motives, attitudes of the other, but also how this other understands my needs, motives, attitudes. All this leads to the fact that the analysis of self-awareness through another includes two sides: identification and reflection.

The term "identification", literally meaning identification of oneself with another, expresses the established empirical fact that one of the most simple ways understanding another person is to liken oneself to him. In real situations of interaction, people often use this technique, when an assumption about the internal state of a partner is based on an attempt to put oneself in his place. In this regard, identification acts as one of the mechanisms of cognition and understanding of another person.

The process of understanding each other is complicated by the phenomenon of reflection. In social psychology, reflection is understood as the awareness by the acting individual of how he is perceived by his communication partner. This is no longer just knowledge or understanding of the other, but knowledge of how the other understands me, a kind of double process of mirror reflections of each other, "" deep, consistent mutual reflection, the content of which is the reproduction of the inner world of the interaction partner, and in this inner world in its own queue is reflected inner world first researcher.

There are various "effects" that arise when people perceive each other: the halo effect, the effect of novelty and primacy, the phenomenon of stereotyping.

The essence of the "halo effect" lies in the formation of a specific attitude towards the perceiver through the directed attribution of certain qualities to him: the information received about a person is categorized in a certain way, namely, it is superimposed on the image that has already been created in advance. This image, which previously existed, plays the role of a "halo" that prevents one from seeing the actual features and manifestations of the object of perception.

The halo effect is manifested in the formation of the first impression of a person in that a general favorable impression leads to positive assessments and unknown qualities of the perceived and, conversely, a general unfavorable impression contributes to the predominance of negative assessments. In experimental studies, it has been established that the halo effect is most clearly manifested when the perceiver has minimal information about the object of perception, and also when judgments relate to moral qualities. This tendency to obscure certain characteristics and highlight others plays the role of a kind of halo in the perception of a person by a person.

The effects of "primacy" and "novelty" relate to the significance of a certain order of presenting information about a person to form an idea about him.

causal attribution. Types and errors of causal attribution. The content of interpersonal perception depends on the characteristics of both the subject and the object of perception, because they are included in a certain interaction that has two sides, evaluating each other and changing some characteristics of each other due to the very fact of their presence. In the first case, the interaction can be stated by the fact that each of the participants, evaluating the other, seeks to build a certain system of interpretation of his behavior, in particular, its causes. The interpretation of the behavior of another person can be based on knowledge of the causes of this behavior, and then this is the task of scientific psychology. But in everyday life, people very often do not know the real reasons for the behavior of another person, or they do not know them enough. Then, in conditions of information deficiency, they begin to attribute to each other both the causes of behavior, and sometimes the patterns of behavior themselves, or some more General characteristics. Attribution is carried out either on the basis of the similarity of the perceived person's behavior with some other pattern that was in the past experience of the subject of perception, or on the basis of an analysis of one's own motives, assumed in a similar situation. But one way or another, a whole system of ways of such attribution (attribution) arises.

Studies of causal attribution are aimed at studying the attempts of the "ordinary person", "man from the street" to understand the cause and effect of those events in which he is a witness or participant. This includes also the interpretation of one's own and others' interpersonal perceptions. If at first the study of attribution was only about attributing the causes of the behavior of another person, then later they began to study ways of attributing a wider class of characteristics: intentions, feelings, personality traits. the very phenomenon of attribution occurs when a person has a lack of information about another person: it is necessary to replace it with the process of attribution.

The measure and degree of attribution in the process of interpersonal perception depends on two indicators: on the degree of uniqueness or typicality of an act and on the degree of its social "desirability" or "undesirability". The first case refers to the fact that typical behavior there is behavior prescribed by role images, and therefore it is easier to unambiguously interpret. On the contrary, unique behavior is open to many different interpretations, and therefore gives scope for attributing causes and characteristics to it. It is exactly the same in the second case: socially "desirable" means behavior that corresponds to social and cultural norms and is thus relatively easily and unambiguously explained. When such norms are violated, the range of possible explanations expands. This conclusion is close to the reasoning of S.L. Rubinshtein about the ""coagulation"" of the process of cognition of another person in normal conditions and its ""expansion"" in cases of deviation from the accepted samples.

In other works, it was shown that the nature of attribution depends on whether the subject of perception is himself a participant in an event or its observer. In these two different cases, a different type of attribution is chosen. G. Kelly identified three such types: personal attribution (when the cause is attributed to the personally committed act), object attribution (when the cause is attributed to the object to which the action is directed) and circumstantial attribution (when the cause of the action is attributed to circumstances).

Accuracy of interpersonal perception. Forming a first impression. When perceiving physical objects, one can check the accuracy of perception by comparing its results with objective fixation, measuring certain qualities and properties of objects. In the case of knowing another person, the impression received about him by the perceiving subject cannot be compared with anything, since there are no methods for direct registration of the numerous qualities of the personality of another person. The inability to check the accuracy of the perception of another person by direct comparison with the data of objective methods forces us to look for other approaches to the very understanding of the problem and ways to solve it. One of these ways is to comprehend the entire set of "hindrances" that stand in the way of interpersonal perception to such "hindrances" that stand in the way of interpersonal perception. Such "hindrances" can include all the mechanisms and effects arising in this process. An important factor in increasing the accuracy of the perception of another person is to receive from him feedback, which helps to correct the image and contributes to a more accurate prediction of the behavior of a communication partner.

The three most typical schemes for the formation of the first impression of a person are described. Each scheme is ""started"" by a certain factor present in the acquaintance situation. The factors of superiority, the attractiveness of the partner and the attitude towards the observer are distinguished.

16. The concept of communication. Communication and joint activities.

Communication- this is a special manifestation of activity, as a complex multifaceted process, establishing and developing contacts. Ch-k conveys his thoughts, impressions, feelings, experiences to another person. Communication is an activity. there are motives and motives of the goal. In any joint activity, communication arises. Any mental development is carried out through communication. The need for communication appears 1-1.5 months - in the complex of revival - a social smile appears. in the first, the psyche of h-ka is fixed. The need for communication has 2 sides: 1. Non-specific (when it receives emotional satisfaction from communication)

2. Specific (the conclusion is that with the help of communication, the child develops Consciousness, speech, thinking, moral aspects).

A 1-year-old child has: - Objective - manipulative activity (with the help of a parent); - Game - imagination develops in the game, and any game is not possible without communication; - Educational activity - this type of activity is impossible without communication; - Personally significant activity. Communication functions (ex. Pavlov): 1. Information and communication (information transfer)2. Regulatory-communicative (regulation of one's own behavior and regulation of joint activities)3. Affective-communicative (we are talking about understanding emotional states). If you do not communicate with children, this leads to death.

17. Functions and motives of communication.

Communication is a complex process of interaction between people, which consists in the exchange of information, as well as in the perception and understanding of each other by partners.

In the characterization of communication, its functions are important. B. Lomov identifies three functions of communication:

information and communication; regulatory - communicative; effectively - communicative.

Information and communicationcommunication function includes formation processes, transmission and reception of information. The implementation of this function consists of several levels. At the first stage, the essence of the differences in the initial awareness of people entering into psychological contact is leveled. The second level is the transfer of information and decision making. At this level of communication, it realizes the goals of informing, necessary training, etc. The third level is associated with the desire of a person to be able to understand others. Communication in this case is aimed at analyzing and forming assessments of the results achieved (agreement - no agreement, comparison of views, etc.).

Regulatory-communicative function is to change behavior. Thanks to universal communication, a person regulates not only the model of his own behavior, but also the behavior of many other people, reacts to their actions. There is a process of so busy - mutual adjustment of actions. Here, phenomena inherent in joint activity are manifested, in particular, the compatibility of different people, their deterioration, mutual stimulation and, in some cases, behavior correction are carried out. The regulatory and communicative function is performed by such phenomena as suggestion, imitation, etc.

Effective-communicative function of communication characterizes the emotional shell of a person. Communication especially affects the emotional state of a person. In the emotional sphere, a person's attitude to environment, including the social one.

There are other classifications of the function of communication. In particular, depending on the purpose of communication, L.A. Karpenko defines such functions of communication and their purpose:

♦ contact - establishing contact as a state of readiness to transfer and receive information and maintaining the relationship in the form of constant mutual orientation; ♦ informational - exchange of information, opinions, decisions; ♦ incentive - stimulation of the communication partner; ♦ coordinating - mutual orientation and coordination of actions and goals in the organization of interaction; ♦ understanding - not only adequate perception and understanding of the essence, meaning of the message, but also mutual understanding by partners of each other (intentions, emotional states, etc.); ♦ emotive - excitation of the necessary emotional states in the partner ("exchange of emotions") or change of one's own under the influence of the partner; ♦ establishment and fixation of the allotted place in the system of functions of role, status, business relations of the society, in which it is necessary for the individual to act; ♦ impact - a change in the state, behavior, personality-shaped formations (intentions, attitudes, decisions, needs, actions, etc.). A variation of the role type of communication is also managerial communication, i.e. communication between several interlocutors who occupy different positions in the social management hierarchy. AA Urbanovich defines the following main functions of managerial communication: ■ issuance of the necessary administrative information (instructions, orders, recommendations, advice, etc.); ■ receiving responses of feedback (control) information on the progress and results of the implementation of administrative information; ■ issuance of evaluation information on the results of the implementation of the task.

Firstcommunication function in management activities always present, she is the leader. The second and third may be absent in a particular case of managerial communication. One of the features of the function of communication is the formation of interpersonal relationships.

Coming into contact with people, a modern leader, if he wants to succeed, needs to understand the motives of communication of his interlocutors. The motives of communication can be coinciding and opposing.

Matching motives facilitate communication.

Opposing motives have the opposite effect, they prevent the establishment of good communication.

Communication motives can be stable and temporary.

sustainable there are motives when one person is interested (or not interested) in communicating with another for a long time.

Temporary motives are situational, arising under the influence of certain circumstances. For example, if one of the employees has troubles in the family or difficulties in the work team, in relations with comrades, then any mention of colleagues about a “sore” issue, even an inadvertent hint, can cause either isolation or an outburst of negative emotions.

In such cases, it is necessary to give him the opportunity to calm down or pour out his soul to the interlocutor. Without understanding the state of one or another employee, instead of psychological contact, an emotional barrier of alienation may arise.

In psychological terms, the motive is the desire to communicate with a specific (but not always clearly conscious) goal. In this regard, due to conditionality, the motives of communication can be different.

Motive-duty characterizes communication, really motivated by considerations and feelings of duty, honor, conscience, worldview, moral and political convictions, high civic ideals. A person communicates because it is necessary, first of all, for society, for other people.

Such motives of communication internally oblige to openly oppose phenomena alien to society, to take an active civic position in clashes with ideological opponents, with bureaucrats, demagogues, etc. In these cases, a sense of duty and conscience is the leading motive of words and deeds.

Motive-need manifests itself in communication, the motives of which are complicated or psychologically determined by the biological, material or spiritual needs of the individual. An example of this is the energetic contacts of students when it is necessary to get the right book or abstract for the exam.

Motive interest prevails in communication, the motives of which are complicated or mentally conditioned by the interests, curiosity, inquisitiveness, passions of people. The strength and direction can be different.

In the practice of communication, interesting interlocutors, interesting conversations, lectures, information, messages, books, facts, etc. are often singled out. It is clear that it is easier for people who have similar interests to communicate with each other. Let us remember how easily and naturally fishermen, fans of the same team, etc., communicate even at the first meeting. Communication by interests almost always has a special emotional coloring and facilitates the achievement of the desired rapprochement.

Experienced communicators skillfully use such motives as a psychological moment of rapprochement with the interlocutor and further transfer of the conversation to a pre-planned topic. In this regard, in practice, it is necessary to distinguish between real and demonstrative motives-interests.

Habit motive characteristic of communication based on the habits and inclinations of people. The latter also influences the choice of topics, goals and communication partners. The difference between useful and bad habits that motivate communication leads to different social assessments of specific acts of communication. Compare the communication of people who have known each other for a long time, and the communication of two unfamiliar interlocutors.

Motive-capricepresented in communication motivated by whims, whims, affective outbursts, etc.

The motives of this group are among the vital, selfish and are usually characteristic of people who are ill-mannered, unrestrained and morally loose.

There are frequent cases when team leader, who received a "scold" from the higher authorities, begins to "carry" his subordinates, without understanding the essence of the issue. It is extremely difficult to talk with a person whose communication is motivated by a whim, a whim.

Therefore, you should first understand the reasons for the emergence of motives-whims, and only after that determine the best ways to influence the communication partner.

However, it should be remembered that the motive of communication is not always static. Primary motives can change in the course of communication under the influence of the interlocutor, the situation and conditions of communication.

Note that only one enumeration of the varieties of motives testifies to the complex patterns of communication, which, nevertheless, every leader must always keep in mind.

The leader, by the nature of his professional activity, has to enter into the process of communication with various age audiences. Taking into account their characteristics when establishing contact with them is an important factor in achieving mutual understanding when discussing issues.

When making contact with the audience, we must not forget that quite often communication between the older generation and young people is difficult. age characteristics both sides.

Sometimes it is possible to overcome the psychological barrier with the help of an adult's story about his behavior in childhood or adolescence in a similar situation, evaluating his actions from a youthful position and an adult position.

In communicating with young people, great tact, patience, and attention to their interests and inclinations must be shown in order to avoid the appearance of a disdainful attitude towards adults among young people.

Communication with people of the older generation has its own characteristics that must be taken into account and used in interpersonal interaction.

Most often, the partnership style of interaction includes democratic style communications. A partner (from French partenaire - a participant in something; one who, together with someone, participates in any joint activity) is an interaction participant capable of dialogue and polylogue (discussion, a conversation of three or more participants), following the rules effective relationships: a psychological attitude to the emotional state of the interlocutor and one’s own psychological condition(communication on the principle of "here and now", i.e. taking into account feelings, desires, physical condition at this particular moment); trust in the intentions of the partner without assessing his personality (principle of trust)", the perception of the partner as an equal, having the right to his own opinion and own decision(the principle of parity comes from the Latin paritas - equality); communication should be directed to common problems and unresolved issues (principle of problematization); the conversation must be conducted on your own behalf, without reference to someone else's opinion and authorities; you should express your true feelings and desires (the principle of personifying communication comes from the Latin persona - personality + facere - to do).
hallmark partnership interaction is a respectful and attentive attitude to the interlocutor, to his questions, doubts and reactions. Since communication is multifunctional, five functions are distinguished in psychology, which guide the participants in business interaction:
pragmatic function. As a rule, it is realized when people interact in the process of joint activities;
formative function. Manifested in the process of human development and formation as a person;
confirmation function. It consists in the fact that only in the process of communication with others can we understand, know and assert ourselves in our own eyes. Signs of confirmation include acquaintances, greetings, showing signs of attention;
the function of organizing and maintaining interpersonal relationships. In the course of communication, we evaluate people, establish emotional relationships, and the same person in different situations can cause a different attitude. Emotional interpersonal relationships are found in business communication and leave a special imprint on them;
intrapersonal function of communication. It is a dialogue with oneself; it is thanks to this function that a person makes decisions and performs significant actions.
Thus, the formed stable individual style of interaction indicates the level of communicative skill achieved by a particular person. Whatever the style of a particular participant in the training pedagogical communication, it allows further learning of new skills and communication skills, techniques and methods of influence and positive influence on other people, ways to relieve tension and adapt, adapt, overcome difficulties and obstacles of incompatibility and aggressiveness. Since communication is the leading component of pedagogical activity, it is necessary to master a professionally typical style of interaction that allows you to constructively solve not only learning goals but also to promote effective business contacts.