What is the result of the economic activity of the organization. Results of economic activity of enterprises
The ratio of individual parts of the population to each other
115. To reduce the sampling error calculated under mechanical selection, you can:
Increase sample size
116. An empirical correlation relation is:
The share of intergroup dispersion in the total
The index is ... a relative value obtained by comparing the levels of complex socio-economic indicators in time, space or with a plan
The numerical indicators by which the object is characterized are reflected in the ___ of the statistical table. predicate
To measure seasonal waves in relative terms, methods are used ... moving averages; moving sums and moving averages
The stages of statistical observation include ... statistical observation, primary processing, summary and grouping of observation results, analysis of the resulting summary materials
Statistical data characterizing changes in a phenomenon over time are called ___ series. dynamic
Checking statistical observation data for reliability involves ... syntactic, logical and arithmetic (counting) control
Depending on the result of economic activity, absolute values are called ... positive and negative
The stages of correlation analysis do not include ... verification of the reliability, accuracy and validity of the forecast.
According to the type of indexed indicators, the indices are divided into indices of ... quantitative, qualitative and cost indicators
A survey presented as a way to obtain statistical information is called ... correspondent
The basis of statistical methodology is ... statistical methods for studying mass social phenomena
The indicators of variation are ... mode and median
According to the analytical expression in statistics, _______ connections are distinguished. linear and curvilinear
Reducing each feature value by 2 times leads to ... a decrease in variance by 4 times
According to the method of construction and the tasks of the image, statistical graphs are divided into ... diagrams and statistical maps
Goskomstat was transformed into Rosstat on the basis of ... the Constitution of the Russian Federation
There are the following types of absolute values ... general and individual
In the classification of methods for selecting units from the general population, ___ selection methods are distinguished. single-phase, multi-phase
Approximate calculation of unknown levels lying inside the time series is called ... interpolation
According to the form of representation of the level of the series, the series of dynamics are ... moment and interval
Charts that depict the dimensions of a feature in the form of rectangles arranged horizontally are called ... strip charts.
A table in the subject of which the population is divided into groups not according to one, but according to several criteria, is called ... combinational
According to the technique of material execution, statistical reports are divided into ... mechanized and manual
The following data are available on the retail turnover of the enterprise by quarters for 2010, million rubles:
The relative values of the structure of the retail turnover of the enterprise by quarters will be equal to ...
The coefficient in pairwise regression is ... an empirical measure of the closeness of the relationship between variables and
A form of continuous statistical observation of long-term processes that have a fixed beginning, stage of development and a fixed end is ... register observation
The program and methodological issues of the observation plan determine ___ observations. purpose, object, unit and program
The activities of the Federal State Statistics Service of Russia are managed by ... The Government of the Russian Federation
The subject of statistics is ... the size and quantitative ratios of socio-economic phenomena, the patterns of their connection and development
is the formula ... of the arithmetic mean index of physical volume
Variation indicators are divided into ... absolute and relative
There is data on the population of one of the regions of Russia for 2005–2010, million people:
A complex bar chart would look like...
To identify the main development trend is not used ... autocorrelation
Statistical series that characterize the size of the phenomenon under study for certain periods of time are called series ... interval
'Confidentiality' in statistics means that … data about individuals may never be shared with others, or only in cases provided for by law or a court decision????????
The difference between statistics and other social sciences is that it ... studies the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of social phenomena
Using the formula, find the structural average, called ...
The main units of measurement for relative quantities are ...
ratios, percentages, ppm, decimille, etc.
Statistical grouping is called ...
breakdown of units of the population according to the selected attribute
The organization of a statistical summary does not include the stage of ... calculating the interval and determining the interval series
When measuring the closeness of the relationship between two qualitative alternative features, you can apply the coefficient ... association
Among the units of measurement, to characterize absolute values, they use ... natural, cost, labor indicators
The total number of employees of the company is 20 people, and the minimum and maximum income, respectively, is 10,000 and 25,000 rubles. The interval for grouping company employees by income level will be equal to ... 3000
The main objective of regression analysis is ... to determine the type of mathematical function that describes the dependence of the average value of the variable y on the allowable changes in factor variables
The enlargement of the time periods to which the dynamics series belong is called the method ... of the enlargement of the intervals
A number of indices of the same phenomenon, calculated with a base comparison changing from index to index, is called a system of ... chain indices
For proper random and mechanical sampling of the non-repetitive selection method for a share, the marginal sampling error is determined by the formula ...
Non-repetitive, single-stage sampling with a separate selection unit from the general population refers to __________ selection method. actually random
According to the formula, where - variant, and - frequency, find the average ... arithmetic weighted
A statistical summary is called ... the systematization and calculation of the totals of registered facts and data
1. The general index of labor productivity (in terms of labor intensity) is ...
Time series analysis
2. The ratio of the absolute increase in the level of the series for the time interval to the growth rate for the same period of time calculates the indicator
absolute value of 1% increase+
3. According to the analytical expression, correlations can be ...
curvilinear+
4. The unit of observation of the population is ...
5. The economically active population is ... (indicate the most complete answer).
employees+
6. To study the dynamics of the volume of industrial production, the index ___ is used, which characterizes the change in the mass of manufactured products in comparable periods.
physical volume of trade+
7. When calculating the human development index, do not take into account:
material conditions of existence+
8. Institutional units whose main function is to produce goods for sale at profit-making prices belong to the sector ...
non-financial corporations+
9. Current accounts include an account ...
income generation+
10.GDP at market prices, when determined by the production method, is calculated as the sum of ...
gross value added of all sectors of the national economy +
11. The balancing item of the production account for a branch of the economy or sector of the economy is ...
gross value added+
12. Relative indicators of budget revenues include ...
the ratio of revenue and expenditure parts of the budget +
13. The financial result of the production activity of an enterprise, which is calculated as the difference between the proceeds from the sale of goods, products, works and services and their cost, is called ...
gross profit+
14. One of the indicators used to control the dynamics of the money supply, as well as to analyze the possibilities of commercial banks to increase the amount of credit investments in the country's economy, is ...
money multiplier+
15. The system of indicators reflecting the density of distribution of banking institutions includes ...
number of banking institutions per 100 thousand people+
16.Statistical information can be obtained...
conducting a specially organized collection of information from units of the statistical population +
17. Characterization of selected groups with the help of statistical indicators is called ...
18. Absolute values can be expressed in ...
kilometers, kilograms+
19. The fashion in the distribution series is ...
variant, which is more common +
20. To identify the form of influence of some factors on others, the method of ______ analysis is used.
regression+
21. If data are available at the beginning and end of the period, then the average population is calculated using the formula for the average ...
arithmetic simple+
22. By dividing the total amount of annual cash income by 12 and the average annual population, determine ... the average per capita cash income of the population per month +
23. Accumulation accounts include ...
financial account+
24. According to the income generation account, the “Use” column reflects articles ...
gross profit of the economy+
wages of hired workers.
25. The overall financial stability ratio (autonomy ratio) characterizes ...
the share of own funds in the total value of the sources of funds of the enterprise +
26. Depending on the level of credit risk, loans are divided into …
standard, non-standard, dubious, hopeless+
28. The census of the population of Russia is
one-time, specially organized, continuous observation +
29. The division of the studied qualitatively heterogeneous population into classes, socio-economic types, homogeneous groups of units in accordance with the rules of scientific grouping is called
typological grouping+
30. When comparing the indicators of each subsequent level with the previous one, the dynamics indicators are determined by _____ methods
31. The average value characterizes..
the level of development of the phenomenon as a whole in the aggregate with a large number of observations +
31. Relative values of the structure characterize ...
the composition of the phenomenon and show what proportion in the total total is each of its parts +
32. The average level of the absolute values of the interval series of dynamics with levels equally spaced in time is defined as the average ...
simple arithmetic+
33. Correlation ratio is used for ...
definition of factorial variation+
34. The coefficient of natural population growth characterizes __________ of the population.
natural movement+
35. The totality of establishments engaged in one or predominantly one type of production activity is
branch of the economy+
36. The current classification of budget expenditures does not provide for grouping by ...
technical purpose+
37. When calculating the average price level, if indicators of the quantity of goods in physical terms are used as weights, the average formula is used ...
arithmetic weighted+
38. An indicator reflecting the total number of objects located in a certain, predetermined territory that can be accepted for insurance under a certain type of insurance contract is called ...
the size of the insurance field +
39. The subject of the study of statistics are ...
statistical aggregates+
41. Random variation reflects ...
intragroup variance+
42. The general index of variable composition is ...
43. The unemployment rate is defined as the ratio of the number of unemployed to ...
economically active population+
44.Gross national income is calculated as ...
gross domestic product plus balance of primary income from abroad+
45. According to the primary income distribution account, the column “Resources” reflects articles ...
gross profit of the economy and gross mixed income+
production and import taxes+
property income from the Rest of the World+
46. In order to bring disparate levels of a series of dynamics to a comparable form, the technique is used ...
bringing the series of dynamics to the same base +
47. On the basis of the series of distribution of the population by income, it is not determined ...
real disposable cash income+
48. The System of National Accounts (SNA) is ...
a system for calculating macroeconomic indicators built as a set of interconnected accounts and balance sheets+
49. Gross output consists of output ...
products, market services, non-market services, indirectly measured financial intermediation services+
50. When calculating the indicators of the structure of regional and local taxes, determine ...
the share of all taxes in the total amount of revenues of budgets of all levels +
51. The value of products and services produced in the reporting period, which is the starting point for calculating the gross domestic product at the production stage, is an indicator such as ...
gross output+
52. Sectors of the economy include (s) ...
households+
53. The essence of statistical observation is
systematic, scientifically based collection of mass data on the phenomena of public life
Topic: Labor market statistics
54. Workers hired for a period of at least five days belong to ...
payroll +
55. The indirectly measured services of financial intermediaries and the cost of paid services to customers are included in the gross output of an industry such as…
finance (banks and other financial intermediaries)+
56. If the index of fixed composition was 250%, the index of structural changes - 150%, then the price index of variable composition increased by _____%.
57. According to the level of measurement, the signs possessed by units of the statistical population are divided into ...
quantitative and non-quantitative+
59. The prices at which enterprises sell manufactured products for industrial, technical and consumer purposes to other enterprises or marketing organizations are called ...
wholesale+
There is information on the elements of economic assets included in the national wealth (million rubles): fixed assets - 400, cash - 1100, circulating assets - 170, monetary gold - 3600, valuables - 1000, special drawing rights - 800, expenses for exploration - 60, software tools - 50, land - 2750, minerals - 3520, licenses and copyrights - 230, deposits - 370, shares - 1200, original literary and artistic works - 1900, loans - 200. The volume of non-financial assets is equal to …
Information about the size, composition and distribution of the population is taken from ...
census+
The enterprise has data on hours worked by shifts: the first shift - 12,000 man-days, the second shift - 9,800 man-days.
The shift mode utilization rate is _____%.(12000+9800)/12000/2
Depending on the way the levels are expressed, the series of dynamics are divided into series of relative, average and ___________ values.
absolute+
Quantitative feature takes two values: 10 and 20. Part of the first of them is equal to 30%. The average value is ...
The relationship between the signs can be considered significant at the value of the linear correlation coefficient ...
We have the following data for April in man-days: 2884 employees worked for the enterprise; all-day downtime amounted to 100; absenteeism at work - 1516; including in connection with days off - 1200. The personnel fund of working time is equal to _______ man-days. (2884 + 100 + 1516-1200)
National wealth is a set of accumulated material wealth, _______ at a given point in time.
which society has
periodic movement of the population from one settlement to another and vice versa, associated with work or study +
The characteristics of an institutional unit are…
carry out operations with other units+
the ability to manage their own material and financial resources +
maintenance of a full set of accounting accounts +
Determine the sector for which the primary income distribution account is built.
«Non-financial corporations»+
The sectors of the economy are…
financial institutions+
households+
The distributive method of calculating GDP is the sum of ...
wages of employees, net taxes on production and imports, gross profit and gross mixed income+
If a named quantity is measured in natural units, then it is called ...
absolute indicator +
The programmatic and methodological issues of statistical observation include ...
determination of the purpose of observation+
The intergroup variance is 30, the total variance is 180. The coefficient of determination is ...
Calculate the average level of working capital for the six months, thousand rubles.
85. A set of units that have mass character, homogeneity, a certain integrity, interdependence of states and the presence of variation are called statistical (th) ...
totality+
In government finance statistics, the method in which flows are recorded at the time of receipt or payment of funds is called ...
cash+
One-time observation is accounting ...
housing stock of the population +
An employee for whom the collection of statistical data is a professional activity is called ...
extra+
Bringing the received data into the system, their processing and calculation of the results are carried out using the methods ...
summaries and groupings+
The general indicator of the securities market is called the index ...
Dow Jones+
A distribution series is presented that characterizes the number of deposits in Sberbank at the end of each year. The distribution number is...
momentary+
The regression equation between the unit cost of production and overhead costs is calculated: . This means that as overhead costs rise by 1 ruble, the unit cost of production increases by ...
The ratio of the next level of the dynamics series to the current level is ...
growth factor+
The coefficient showing how much the level of consumption will change when the average per capita income (or price) changes by 1% is called the coefficient
elasticity+
The production of goods and services and their sale at prices, depending on the impact on demand, are called ...
market, non-market
Financial assets do not include...
jewelry+
If each value of the attribute is increased by 10 units, then the average ...
will increase by 10+
The value of goods consumed (excluding the consumption of fixed capital) and market services consumed in the production of other goods and services in a given period is ...
intermediate consumption+
If, after the calculations, the vitality coefficient is greater than one, then ...
excess of the number of births over the number of deaths+
The list number of employees of the enterprise is the number of ...
payroll employees for a certain number of the reporting period +
Depending on the presence of the main trend of the process under study, the series of dynamics are divided into ...
stationary and non-stationary+
Depending on the nature of the studied quantity, indices are distinguished ...
quantitative and qualitative indicators+
The assessment of the significance of the parameters of the regression model is carried out on the basis of ...
Student's t-test+
Fixed capital (funds) refers to ...
produced non-financial assets+
The decile coefficient of income differentiation shows ...
how many times the minimum income of the richest 10% of the population exceeds the maximum income of the 10% of the poorest population +
Current transfers include…
direct current taxes on income+
social security contributions+
Statistical observation is carried out by ...
conducting a specially organized collection of information from units of the statistical population +
The relative indicator of the implementation of the production plan was 103%, while the volume of production increased by 5% compared to the previous period. The plan provided for (-axis)
production growth+
In statistics, there is no such criterion of the standard of living as ...
wealth+
116. Registration errors can be...
random, systematic+
Gross domestic product is the balancing item in the account...
production of goods and services+
The total value of products and services produced in the reporting period and including all market and non-market products and services is ...
gross output+
An indicator characterizing the intensity of the movement of labor resources for a certain period, in particular, the turnover rate, is the ratio of _______________ to the average number of employees.
the number of voluntary redundancies+
Based on the data presented in the table, the modal income is ...
The median in statistics is called ...
the value of the trait that occupies a central position in the distribution series +
A relationship in which a certain value of a factor attribute corresponds to one and only one value of the resulting attribute is called ...
functional+
The domestic economy covers the activities of…
non-residents in the economic territory of this country+
residents in the economic territory of a given country+
When comparing the indicators of each subsequent level with the one taken as a base, the dynamics indicators are determined by the _____________ method.
basic+
Define account name:
sector production account+
Capital transfers include...
grants for capital construction in other countries+
compensation for losses from natural disasters+
The concept of "production" in the SNA methodology includes ...
production of all goods and services+
illegal production of goods and services+
Groupings of business units in the SNA are carried out according to ...
institutional sectors+
industries+
Produced assets include:
fixed capital, inventories+
The purchasing power index of households, reflecting the change in real income, is defined as ...
the volume of goods that could be purchased for the amount of the average per capita disposable cash income of households +
The resident population is the persons ... habitually residing in a given territory, regardless of their location at the time of counting+
If a woman is the main employee of the enterprise and is currently on additional parental leave, then this employee of the enterprise is included in the ______________ headcount. list +
With a linear form of communication, the theoretical correlation ratio (R) and the linear correlation coefficient (r) ...
The replacement cost of fixed assets is...
real value of fixed assets at the time of revaluation+
If the actual time worked is divided by the maximum possible fund of working time, then as a result we get the utilization rate of ___________________ working time. maximum possible fund+
According to the data on the average academic score and the number of students in each of the academic groups of the faculty, the average student academic score for the faculty as a whole is determined by the average ...
arithmetic weighted+
If, with the same amount of labor costs, 10% more products were produced, labor productivity
increased by 10%+
Specially organized surveillance includes _______________ of the population.
census+
Intermediate consumption includes the costs of … raw materials for the production of goods and services+
1. Socio-economic statistics uses the method
mass statistical observation
2. “Desperate” workers who would like to work but have stopped looking for a job
no longer counted in the labor force
3. The absolute content of 1% increase, equal to 70 rubles, shows that each percentage increase increases the next level by ______ rubles.
4. The absolute indicator of variation, which characterizes the degree of fluctuation of the trait around the average value, is
standard deviation
5. Absolute growth (chain) is calculated by the formula
6. Absolute growth is calculated as ___________ levels of the series
difference
8. Aggregate price index shows
how many times increased (decreased) on average the level of prices for the mass of goods sold in the reporting period, compared with the base period
9. The share was purchased on the market at a price of 1100 rubles, the dividend was 100 rubles, the recurrence rate is _____(%) _______ (answer with an accuracy of 0.01)
10. The algebraic sum of linear deviations (differences) of individual values of a feature from the arithmetic mean is equal to
11. Analysis of the tightness and direction of the connection of two signs is carried out on the basis of
pairwise correlation coefficient
12. The analytical expression of the connection is determined using the analysis
regression
13. The balance of labor resources is compiled
annually
14. The balancing function of price is that with its help
a balance is achieved between production and consumption
15. The book value of fixed assets is the cost
on which they are accounted for in the balance sheet of the enterprise
16. The banking system in the Russian Federation has _____ level(s)
17. The block of types of money includes indicators
cash in circulation
non-cash money supply
money multiplier
securities in circulation
18. The block of money supply indicators includes
monetary aggregate M1
19. A team of turners (3 people) is busy turning identical parts during an 8 hour working day. The 1st turner sharpens one part in 10 minutes, the 2nd - 15, the 3rd - 12. The average manufacturing time for one part is (min)
20. In 2005, the store's turnover amounted to 400 million rubles, while the plan was 360 million rubles. the relative indicator of the fulfillment of the trade turnover plan in 2005 amounted to
21. In 2005, the number of births in the region was 23,000 people, the average annual population was 230,000 people. The birth rate for the region in 2005 is ____ (‰) (answer in numbers)
22. In the balance sheet, the net worth of equity is
Non-financial assets + Financial assets - Financial liabilities
23. Depending on the range of tasks to be solved, diagrams are distinguished
comparisons
24. In quantitative terms, the differences between GDP and GNP for developed countries, as a rule, do not exceed __________%
25. Inventory includes
productive reserves
unfinished production
26. Working capital includes
unfinished production
finished products
27. Fixed assets include
vehicles
28. In February, the volume of sales doubled compared to January, in March it remained the same as in February, and in April, compared to March, it increased by 4 times. Average monthly growth rate compiled (%):
29. In February, the volume of sales doubled compared to January, in March it remained the same as in February, and in April, compared to March, it increased by 4 times. The average monthly growth rate was (%):
30. Gross domestic product is a value
final finished goods and services produced in the territory of a given country
31. Variation is change
feature values in time and/or space
32. The value of banking assets per 100 thousand people reflects
scale of operations of local banks
33. The amount of sampling error is inversely proportional to the square root of _________
sample size
34. The probability of surviving to the age of x + 1 year is calculated by the formula
(lx - number of people surviving to age x)
35. The probability of dying at the age of x years to the age of x+1 is calculated by the formula
36. The type of statistical table is determined by:
static subject
static predicate
37. Newly created value is production
38. The age of three people was (years): 20, 30, 40. The average age will be:
equals 30 years
39. A sample formed by random selection of equal groups with subsequent observation of all units without exception in the selected groups - sample
serial
40. Output in 2005 amounted to 480 thousand rubles, the average annual cost of fixed assets - 240 thousand rubles. The return on assets Ф0 is equal to ______ (answer in numbers)
41. The calculation of the value of money in the current period of time based on the future value is called
discounting
42. Freight turnover of transport is measured in
ton-kilometers
43. The grouping of banks by the amount of balance sheet assets, which reveals the relationship between the amount of balance sheet assets and balance sheet profit, is a grouping
analytical
44. The grouping of industrial enterprises by form of ownership is an example of grouping
typological
45. A grouping in which a homogeneous population is divided into groups according to a feature is called
structural
46. A grouping that reveals the relationship between the studied phenomena and their features is called
analytical
47. Data characterizing the number of deposits in a commercial bank at the end of each year form a series:
moment
50. Monetary aggregate M0 includes
cash in circulation
51. Cash flow is
52. The divisor is determined by the formula (Y is the length of the year in days, i is the annual interest rate (in %))
53. The discount factor is calculated by the formula
60. For a sample of 2,3,7, the arithmetic mean is: 4
61. For sample 5, 7, 8, 12, 15, the median is: 8
62. For a sample of 9, 25, the geometric mean is: 15
63. For the sample series 16, 14, 5, 10, 3, 0, structured into 2 groups with equal intervals, the value of the interval is 8
64. For sample series 3, 6, 9, the variance is 18
65. For the values of the series of dynamics x1=8, x2=32, the absolute increase is 24
66. For the values of the series of dynamics x1=8, x2=32, the growth factor is: 4
67. For the values of the series of dynamics x1=8, x2=32, the growth rate is ____% 300
68. To study stochastic relationships, the method of comparing two parallel series is used.
69. For a visual representation of the series of dynamics, it is advisable to use linear diagrams
70. For a bond with a face value of 1000 rubles. and an annual coupon rate of 22%, the coupon yield is ____ (rub.) 220
71. For a linear pair regression equation, the condition means that with increasing x, the value of y increases
72. For February 2004 calendar time fund of an enterprise unit of 20 people. will be ______ (man-days) (answer in numbers) 580
73. For January 2006, the time sheet fund, if 30 people worked in January, holidays and days off amounted to 12 days, is equal to _____ (man-days) (answer in numbers) 570
74. A document that is an obligation of a bank to pay out deposits placed with them is
certificate of deposit
76. The capacity of the stock exchange market is determined by indicators
number of issuers listed
market capitalization
78. If n is the number of population units, then the Sturgess formula for determining the optimal number of groups k is k = 1 + 3.322×lgN
79. If GDP in current prices amounted to 260 billion rubles, the index - deflator - 1.3., then GDP in comparable prices is _______ (billion rubles) (answer in numbers)200
80. If D is the absolute level of the dividend, Pn is the nominal value of the share, then the annual dividend rate
81. If D - income on a bill; Рpr - the price at which the initial placement of the bill was made, then the profitability of the bill is determined by the formula
82. If Рн is the par value of the bond; ik - annual coupon rate (%), then the coupon yield of the bond
83. If the UK - the amount of the authorized capital; N is the number of issued shares, then the par value of the share (Рн)
84. If Xmax and Xmin are the maximum and minimum values of the attribute, R = Xmax - Xmin is the range of variation, N is the number of population units, then the value of the equal interval
85. If the balance sheet profit is 40 thousand rubles, the cost of fixed and current assets is 250 thousand rubles, then the total profitability is _____ (%)
86. If unemployment is due to a phase of economic recession, then it is unemployment
cyclic
87. If unemployment is associated with the transition of workers from one job to another, then this is unemployment
frictional
88. If the grouping is based on a factor sign, then it is
analytical
89. If the value of the linear correlation coefficient is within 0.3-0.5, then the nature of the relationship:
90. If the weights of all individual feature values are increased by 100 times, then the average value of the new feature
Will not change
91. If all units of the population are divided into qualitatively homogeneous groups according to the characteristics on which the studied indicators depend, then this is a sample
typical
92. If all values of a feature are reduced by the same value A, then the variance
Will not change
93. If all individual values of a feature are increased by 100 units, then the average value of the new feature
will increase by 100 units
94. If all individual values of a feature are reduced by 5 times, then the average value of the new feature
decrease by 5 times
95. If the price of turkeys was 125%, then the purchasing power index of money is (%):
96. If the linear correlation coefficient is equal to one, then the relationship between the signs
functional
97. If as of 01.01 the number of unemployed is 6 thousand people, the economically active population is 60 thousand people, then the unemployment rate is ____ (%) (answer in numbers) 10
98. If the overall profitability was 20%, the average annual cost of fixed and working capital is 400 thousand rubles, then the balance sheet profit is ___ (thousand rubles) (answer in numbers) 80
99. If, according to sample data, the average dispersion, then the coefficient of variation is: 0.8
100. If information about the wages of workers in two shops is presented by the equations of earnings and wage funds, then the average level of wages should be determined by the formula of the average
The financial result includes the result of all operations grouped by the respective categories of income and expenses for the reporting period.
When analyzing financial results, profit is considered as an indicator of the efficiency of the enterprise's economic activity, the factors that determine the amount of profit, the procedure for generating profit, the relationship between profit and cash flow are studied.
The main types of income are as follows:
Gross profit is the difference between sales revenue and cost of goods sold for the same period. The size of gross profit is used to characterize the efficiency of the production units of organizations;
Profit from sales of products - the difference between the gross profit and expenses of the period for the main activity for the same period. Subtracting recurring expenses from gross profit contributes to the division of the risk of the entrepreneur from the possible non-sale of products with the state. The amount of profit from sales is used to evaluate the effectiveness of the main activity;
Profit from financial and economic activities - the sum of profit from sales and the total result from financial transactions (interest receivable and payable, income from participation in other organizations, etc.). The value of this profit is used to evaluate the main and financial activities of the organization;
Profit before tax (balance sheet profit) is the sum of profit from financial and economic activities and profit (expense) from other operations. Balance sheet profit is an indicator of the economic efficiency of all economic activities of the enterprise;
The net profit (loss) of the reporting period is the balance sheet profit minus the current income tax.
It is also important to divide profit into accounting, economic and tax.
Accounting profit - profit from entrepreneurial activity, calculated according to accounting documents without taking into account the undocumented costs of the entrepreneur himself, including lost profits.
Economic profit is the difference between income and economic costs, including, along with total costs, alternative (imputed) costs; calculated as the difference between the accounting and normal profit of the entrepreneur.
Taxable income is the income on which it is necessary to pay income tax.
The discrepancy between accounting and economic profit is expressed in the fact that the first does not reflect the economic content of profit, and therefore, the real result of the organization's activities for the reporting period. The economic nature of profit reveals what will be received in the future.
3 Investment project efficiency indicators (project profitability index, investment payback period);
To analyze the effectiveness of investments, the following indicators of the effectiveness of investment projects are used:
1) Net current (present) value of the project (NPV).
3) Payback period of investments (T)
4) Internal rate of return (IRR)
The profitability index of the project is determined by: I r =PV/I
Where PV is present value
I-initial investment
The higher this indicator, the more profitable the project. But in essence, a profitability index above 1 means that the NPV of the project is positive.
If Ir>0 the project should be accepted; Ir<0 отвергнуть; Ir=0 проект ни прибыльный, ни убыточный.
The profitability index is a relative indicator, so it is very convenient when choosing one project from a number of alternative ones that have approximately the same NPV value or when completing an investment portfolio with the maximum total NPV value.
Payback period (T). This method is the simplest and most commonly used. The payback period shows the time required for the receipt of income from deferred capital in amounts that allow reimbursement of the initial, single, time costs.
This method has 2 drawbacks:
1 Does not take into account the cash flow received after the payback period
2 The difference in the time of receipt of income before the payback period.
The payback method is used in enterprises with insufficient cash, weak credit opportunities.
4 Labor motivation;
Motivation is a set of internal and external driving forces that induce a person to activity, set the boundaries and forms of activity and give this activity an orientation focused on achieving certain goals.
The main purpose of motivation is to stimulate the production behavior of the company's employees, directing it to achieve the strategic objectives facing it.
The effectiveness of motivation will depend on how the strategic goals of the organization are realized due to the motivation of the staff. In turn, the motivation of employees will be determined by how fully the organization ensures the satisfaction of their basic needs. Therefore, the main meaning of motivation is to combine the interests of the employee with the strategic objectives of the organization.
The effectiveness of motivation includes two main concepts:
1. economic efficiency of motivation;
2. social effectiveness of motivation;
The economic efficiency of motivation includes solving the problems facing the organization. It will depend on the correct and efficient use of human resources. Motivation should orient workers to those actions that are necessary for the organization. Motivation can solve the following tasks of the organization:
a) attracting personnel to the organization;
b) retaining employees in it;
c) stimulation of the production behavior of employees (productivity, creativity, devotion to the organization, etc.)
d) reduction of cost indicators.
These and other economic performance indicators of the organization will depend on effective motivation.
When creating an effective motivation system, a manager must take into account a number of factors complicating this process:
1. non-obviousness of motives. The leader can only guess what motives are at work.
2. different degree of influence of the same motives on different people. The same motive will act differently on people's behavior.
3. there is no unambiguous connection between motivation and the end result, because many random factors intervene here, such as the employee's abilities, his mood at the moment, understanding of the situation, the influence of third parties.
5 Composition and structure of fixed assets;
Depending on the nature of the participation of fixed assets in the production process, they are divided into production and non-production fixed assets. By appointment, the following groups of fixed assets are distinguished:
1. Buildings - architectural construction objects that provide working conditions for sales workers, storage, working and preparation of goods for sale.
2. Structures - engineering and construction facilities necessary for the implementation of trade and technological processes (railways, overpasses, ramps).
3. Transmission devices, all devices with the help of which energy, heat, etc. are transferred (electric networks, gas networks, telephone networks, water networks).
4. Machinery and equipment (vending machines, weight measuring instruments and cash registers, packaging equipment), etc.
5. Tool - mechanized and non-mechanized tools for manual labor (carts, stackers).
6. Production equipment and accessories (work tables, counters, containers for storing liquid and bulk goods).
7. Vehicles.
8. Household equipment - items of office and household equipment (safes, office furniture).
9. Working and productive livestock for commercial enterprises
10. Perennial plantings own farm.
Increasing the level of use of fixed production assets is of great importance for ATP of any purpose. It allows you to increase the volume of transportation and, accordingly, the income of the enterprise, ensure savings in current costs, increase profits and increase the competitiveness of the enterprise.
It is possible to increase the level of use of fixed production assets due to extensive (increase in the operating time of the rolling stock) and intensive (increase in the productivity of the rolling stock per unit of time) factors.
Fixed assets are valued at original, replacement and residual value. The initial cost of fixed assets is the sum of the costs for the construction or acquisition of fixed assets, including the delivery and installation of equipment at prices in force at the time of their commissioning. The replacement cost of fixed assets is the cost of their reproduction at a particular point in time at prices in effect at that point in time. The residual value of fixed assets is the amount of unrecovered value that has been retained in fixed assets to date after a certain period of their operation.
6 Financial results of economic activity of the enterprise (profitability);
The financial results of the enterprise are characterized by indicators of the profit received and the level of profitability. Therefore, the system of indicators of financial results includes not only absolute (profit), but also relative indicators (profitability) of efficiency of use. The higher the level of profitability, the higher the efficiency of management.
Profitability is a relative indicator that has the property of comparability and can be used when comparing the activities of different enterprises. Profitability characterizes the degree of profitability, profitability, profitability.
Profitability indicators allow you to evaluate how much profit an enterprise has from each ruble of funds invested in assets.
All entrepreneurial activity in the conditions of market relations is divided into three types:
operating room (main);
investment (investment in shares, other securities, capital investments);
· financial (receipt and payment of dividends, interest, etc.).
Profitability of products (works, services) is characterized by the following indicators:
profitability of sales (turnover, sales);
the profitability of the output).
The profitability of sales (turnover, sales) is determined by the ratio of the value of the annual balance sheet profit of the enterprise to the value of the annual proceeds from the sale of products without VAT and excises, expressed as a percentage.
The profitability of certain types of products depends on:
level of sales prices;
the level of production costs.
The analysis of the profitability of the output of certain types of products is carried out on the basis of the data of planned and reporting calculations. The level of profitability of certain types of products depends on the average selling prices and unit cost of production.
7 Performance indicators of investment projects (net present value of the project);
The project's net present value (NPV) is the most commonly used metric. characterizes the overall absolute result of investment activity.
where I is the amount of initial investment.
PV is the present value of the investment
NPV shows the net gains or net losses of investors as a result of putting money into a project compared to keeping it in a bank.
If NPV>0, then during its entire economic life, the investment project will reimburse the initial costs I and provide a profit. The project should be accepted.
If NPV=0, then the project only pays for the initial costs, but does not bring profit.
When forecasting income by years, it is necessary to take into account all types of income associated with a given project. If at the end of the project it is planned to receive funds in the form of the salvage value of equipment or the release of part of working capital, then they should be taken into account as income of the corresponding periods. If money is invested in the project not one-time, but in parts over several years, then the following formula is used to calculate NPV:
8 The concept of price. Price types. State price regulation;
Federal legislation does not contain a single (universal) concept of price.
Price is a means of establishing a given ratio (exchangeable goods) within the framework of specific acts of exchange occurring between participants in civil circulation.
The price is expressed in the payment to the counterparty of a certain amount of currency or in another counter provision for the transferred goods (work performed, service rendered) by agreeing on its (price) by the parties in the contract, based on the regulatory requirements of the current legislation.
Depending on state influence, prices are divided into three types: free (market), regulated and established (fixed) by the state.
The market price of a good (work, service) is the price established by the interaction of supply and demand in the market of goods (work, services) in comparable economic conditions.
Regulated prices are also formed as a result of an agreement reached between the parties to the contract. However, the latter cannot set the price above or below the limit set by the relevant competent government authority. The specified type of prices is widely used in such sectors of the economy as the fuel and energy complex, main transport, communications, production and provision of services of increased social importance, etc.
Prices set (fixed) by the state are an extreme version of direct price regulation, when the seller (executor) does not have the right to deviate from them in any direction. They (prices) are set by the state in a fixed amount.
Depending on the service sector of the national economy, all prices (free, regulated, established) are divided into wholesale, retail, prices for construction products, tariffs (price of services), foreign trade prices.
State regulation of prices is one of the forms of legalized state intervention in free market relations. State legal regulation of prices is carried out by establishing: fixed prices and tariffs; marginal prices and tariffs; marginal coefficients of price change; marginal level of profitability. It is necessary to specifically point out the administrative and legal nature of state regulation of prices and pricing in the Russian Federation. In accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the fundamentals of pricing policy are in charge of the Russian Federation.
In cases stipulated by law, prices (tariffs, rates, rates, etc.) are applied, established or regulated by authorized state bodies and (or) local self-government bodies.
The Federal Tariff Service is a federal executive body authorized to carry out legal regulation in the field of state regulation of prices (tariffs) for goods (services).
Separate powers in the field of state regulation of prices (tariffs) are assigned to sectoral federal executive bodies.
According to the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation “On measures to streamline state regulation of prices (tariffs)”, sanctions are applied to enterprises and organizations that violate the norms of legislation on state regulation of prices (tariffs) in the form of collecting the entire amount of excessively received revenue.
The Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation provides for liability for overstatement or understatement of state-regulated prices for products, goods or services, marginal prices.
9 Valuation of fixed assets;
In the practice of economic activity of enterprises, such a concept as the assessment of fixed assets is quite often used. The vast majority of companies in the course of their activities acquire property. Sometimes its service life is calculated in months, after which it is written off the balance, sometimes more than a year.
When such an assessment is necessary, this procedure is necessary in the following cases:
For tax purposes;
During privatization activities;
For the redemption of individual objects of the property complex;
When registering a lease;
When concluding a loan agreement with a pledge of property;
When forming the price for sale;
When assessing the authorized capital;
In case of property disputes.
Types of assessment In modern accounting and economic practice, the assessment of fixed assets can be carried out in several ways. We give a brief description of them.
1. Full or inventory - represents the cost of fixed assets at the time of their acquisition. This includes all shipping and installation costs.
3. Restoration appraisal determines the value of these funds, taking into account their depreciation, but based on market prices. Therefore, sometimes it can exceed the total cost.
4. The book value is reflected in the reporting documents of the enterprise, and taxes are calculated on its basis. It is calculated according to a mixed scheme, since some of the objects are accounted for at replacement cost, and some at full cost.
5. Market appraisal of the value of the company's property, perhaps, most clearly reflects the price of fixed assets. Everything is taken into account here - the initial cost, wear and tear, the situation on the market and even the existing financial position of the company. It is this indicator that appears in all agreements and contracts when making transactions.
Valuation of fixed assets is carried out in monetary terms and is a rather complicated procedure. To carry it out for the internal needs of the enterprise and current accounting, they usually manage with the help of their own specialists. They have in their hands all the tools for accurate and thorough calculations. It is enough to take into account the existing data and add new ones. Moreover, in the arsenal of accountants now there are perfect software products that require only the timely input of certain information. The program will give the result itself.
10 Calculation of the manufacturer's selling price. Pricing method based on the analysis of break-even production and ensuring target profit;
In the economy of an enterprise, the initial principle of pricing is the reimbursement of costs for the production and sale of products, works, services and making a profit in an amount sufficient to carry out expanded reproduction, pay relevant taxes to the state and municipal authorities, and form a consumption fund in an amount that provides a certain standard of living for employees of the enterprise .
When developing, calculating and setting the selling price for its products, the company adheres to the following sequence of work:
● 1st stage – selection of pricing strategy. It depends on what the company enters the market with and what goals it seeks to achieve with the help of this product.
● 2nd stage - determination of demand for products, as it determines the maximum price for the product. In a normal situation, demand and price are inversely proportional, i.e. the higher the price, the lower the demand and, accordingly, the lower the price, the higher the demand;
● 3rd stage - estimation of production costs. Production costs are analyzed, as they determine the minimum price for the product. The company calculates the costs for different sales volumes and chooses the best option;
● 4th stage - analysis of prices and quality of similar products of competitors. In a competitive environment, the company, when selling its product, seeks to find the so-called optimal price. The real price of goods is determined in the market based on a comparison of supply and demand. It is important that the optimal price calculated by the enterprise tends to the level of the real price;
● 5th stage – selection of the pricing method. The most common pricing methods are:
The method is based on the analysis of break-even production and ensuring target profit. This method is based on production costs, but the price is set taking into account the desired amount of profit. The method is based on the construction of a break-even chart.
The chart shows:
1 - fixed costs in the production of products P:
y1 = P S, (7.3)
where P is the sum of items: expenses for the preparation and development of production, general production expenses and general business expenses;
S - the planned annual volume of serviced machines.
2 - production costs, including fixed and variable components (full cost of production):
y2 = V N + P, (7.4)
where V - variable costs per unit of production; include the sum of items: material costs, labor costs of the main production workers, social contributions
N is the volume of production.
3 - proceeds from the sale of products:
y3 = C N, (7.5)
where C is the price of a unit of production (excluding VAT);
Point A is the breakeven point, i.e. the volume of production (NA) at which the cost of its production will be equal to the proceeds from its sale:
y2 = y3; (7.6)
V NA + P \u003d C NA;
NA \u003d P / (C - V);
4 - profit zone P:
P \u003d y3 - y2; (7.7)
P \u003d C N - (V N + P);
5 - UB loss zone:
UB = y2 - y3
It is recommended to make several options for schedules corresponding to different levels of product prices, since much depends on the elasticity of demand, and choose the most realistic one. The method itself does not determine the final price of the goods, but gives an idea of the quantity of goods that must be sold at a particular price in order to obtain a particular amount of profit. The break-even production schedule does not take into account the elasticity of demand;
11 Insurance premiums. Personal income tax;
Insurance premiums are a non-tax fee that all organizations, as well as individual entrepreneurs in the Russian Federation, are required to pay.
Types of insurance premiums
With a tax amount of up to 463 thousand rubles. per year, for each individual employee, insurance premiums amount to only 30% of the wage fund.
Insurance premiums include:
Insurance contributions for compulsory pension insurance (OPS) paid to the Pension Fund of the Russian Federation (22%);
Insurance contributions for compulsory social insurance for temporary disability and in connection with motherhood, paid to the Social Insurance Fund of the Russian Federation (2.9%);
Insurance premiums for compulsory medical insurance (OMI) paid to the Federal Compulsory Medical Insurance Fund of the Russian Federation (5.1%);
Personal income tax (PIT) is the main type of direct taxes. It is calculated as a percentage of the total income of individuals, minus documented expenses, in accordance with applicable law.
The amount of income tax directly depends on the tax rate at which the income received by an individual is taxed. For most income received by individuals, a tax rate of 13% applies. These incomes include: wages; income received on the basis of civil law contracts (tutors, private consultations, etc.); sale of property owned for less than 5 years (since 2016); renting out property; winning the lottery or receiving a gift from individuals (except for gifts from family members or close relatives) if their value is more than 4,000 rubles. Dividends from equity participation in the activities of organizations (since 2015).
Income not subject to personal income tax Income tax is not subject to: income received from the sale of property owned for more than 5 years (since 2016); income received by way of inheritance; income received under a donation agreement from a family member or close relative.
12 The enterprise as the main link in the market system of management. Classification of road transport enterprises;
In the conditions of market relations, the center of economic activity moves to the main link of the entire economy - the enterprise. It is at this level that the products needed by society are created, the necessary services are provided.
The most qualified personnel are concentrated at the enterprise, issues of economical use of resources, the use of high-performance equipment are being resolved, business plans are being developed.
At present, the status of the enterprise is regulated by the law of the Russian Federation "Civil Code of the Russian Federation" adopted by the State Duma on October 21, 1994.
The company has:
1. Organizational unity. An enterprise is a collective organized in a certain way with its own internal structure and management procedure.
2. A certain set of means of production. An enterprise combines economic resources to produce economic goods in order to maximize profits.
3. Separate property. The company has its own property, which independently uses for certain purposes.
4. Property liability. The enterprise bears full responsibility with all its property for various obligations.
5. Acts in economic circulation on his own behalf.
Classification of road transport enterprises.
Depending on the purpose, road transport enterprises are divided into three types:
Motor transport (auto-operational);
Motor transport enterprises (ATP) are the most common type of road transport enterprises and serve to transport goods and passengers.
Depending on the type of transportation, ATP are divided into:
Freight;
Passenger (bus and cars);
Mixed (cargo-passenger);
Special (ambulance, public services, etc.)
ATP can also be:
Complex;
Specialized.
Complex ATPs carry out not only the transportation of passengers and goods, but also the storage, maintenance and current repair of rolling stock belonging to the enterprise itself.
Specialized ATPs carry out only the transportation of passengers and goods. These are small enterprises where the creation of their own repair base is irrational.
According to departmental affiliation, ATP are divided into enterprises:
Common use;
Departmental.
Public enterprises are part of the system of the Ministry of Transport and provide transport services only on a commercial basis for legal entities and individuals.
Departmental ATPs are included in non-transport industries (construction, industry, etc.) and serve enterprises and organizations only in the industry they belong to.
13 Indicators of the effectiveness of the use of fixed assets (generalizing indicators);
The efficiency of the use of fixed assets is characterized by general and particular indicators.
Generalizing indicators express the result of using the entire set of fixed assets. These include:
Return on assets (F O)- the quantity of products sold from one ruble of the cost of fixed assets is determined by the formula
where IN- proceeds from the sale of products, works, services (volume of sales), rubles;
WITH WEDDING YEAR.- the average annual cost of fixed assets, determined by the formula
If fixed assets are introduced in the 1st half of the month, i.e. before the 15th day, then they are taken into account in the value of fixed assets of this month.
2. Capital intensity (F E)- the value, the reciprocal of the capital productivity indicator, the cost of fixed assets attributable to each ruble of proceeds from the sale of products (works, services), is determined by the formula
3. Capital-labor ratio of the worker (worker) (F V)- the cost of fixed assets attributable to one worker (worker):
The average number of employees (workers), pers.
14 Financial condition of the enterprise and its analysis;
Information about the financial condition of the enterprise is necessary for all market participants:
Firstly, in order to make the right decisions, the head of the enterprise needs to know the financial condition of competitors, potential partners, customers;
Secondly, investors need financial information to assess the effectiveness of future capital investments and the magnitude of financial risks;
Thirdly, financial information allows banks to determine the reliability and creditworthiness of the client.
The financial condition is determined by:
1) the degree of independence from external sources of financing of its activities;
2) the ability to repay their financial obligations in due time, i.e. solvency.
Solvency is determined by the liquidity of current assets, i.e. the time required to turn them into cash;
3) the ability to provide loans to customers, i.e. creditworthiness.
A stable financial condition is characterized by the equality or excess of sources of own funds over the amount of liabilities (borrowed funds).
1) balance sheet;
2) profit and loss statement with annexes and an explanatory note (cash flow statement, etc.);
3) an auditor's report confirming the reliability of financial statements (if they are subject to audit in accordance with federal laws).
Audit is an independent verification of financial records.
The information contained in these documents makes it possible to evaluate the past and current financial and economic activities of the enterprise, understand the main trends in the indicators and draw conclusions about the potential opportunities of the enterprise.
Profit and income are the main indicators of the financial results of the production and economic activities of the enterprise.
Income is the proceeds from the sale of products (works, services) minus material costs.
It represents the monetary form of the net output of the enterprise, i.e. includes wages and profits.
Income characterizes the total amount of funds that an enterprise receives for a certain period and, after taxes, can be used for consumption and investment. Income is sometimes subject to taxation. In this case, after tax is deducted, it is subdivided into consumption, investment and insurance funds. The consumption fund is used for remuneration of personnel and payments based on the results of work for a certain period, for a share in the authorized property (dividends), material assistance, etc.
Material costs include costs included in the corresponding element of the cost estimate for production, as well as costs equated to them for: depreciation of fixed assets, deductions for social needs, as well as "other costs", i.e. all elements of the cost estimate for production, with the exception of labor costs.
Profit is the part of the proceeds that remains after the reimbursement of all costs for the production and marketing of products.
In a market economy, profit is one of the main sources of accumulation and replenishment of the revenue side of the state and local budgets; the main financial source of the development of the enterprise, its investment and innovation activities, as well as a source of satisfaction of the material interests of the members of the labor collective and the owner of the enterprise.
The amount of profit (income) is significantly affected by both the volume of products and its range, quality, cost, improvement of pricing and other factors. In turn, profit affects such indicators as profitability, solvency of the enterprise and others.
The total profit of the enterprise (gross profit) consists of three parts:
- profit from product sales- as the difference between the proceeds from the sale of products (excluding VAT and excise duty) and its full cost;
- profits for the sale of material assets and other property(this is the difference between the selling price and the cost of acquiring and selling). Profit from the sale of fixed assets will represent the difference between the proceeds from the sale, the residual value and the costs of dismantling and selling;
- profit from non-operating operations, i.e. operations not directly related to the main activity (income from securities, from equity participation in joint ventures; leasing property; excess of the amount of fines received over those paid, etc.).
Gross income- the total amount of income of the enterprise from all types of activities in monetary, tangible or intangible forms. Distribution- reimbursement of material costs, depreciation of fixed assets; taxes and other obligations. payments; salary and deductions for social needs; financing of other expenses; profit.
Profitability of resources and products
Unlike profit, which shows the absolute effect of activity, there is a relative indicator of the effectiveness of the enterprise - profitability. In general, it is calculated as the ratio of profit to costs and is expressed as a percentage. The term is from rent (income). Profitability indicators are used for a comparative assessment of the performance of individual enterprises and industries that produce different volumes and types of products. These indicators characterize the profit received in relation to the spent production resources. The most commonly used indicators are the profitability of products and the profitability of production.
There are the following types of profitability:
1) profitability of production (profitability of production assets) - Rp, is calculated by the formula:
where P- total (gross) profit for the year (or other period);
OFP- the average annual cost of fixed production assets;
NOSE- the average annual balance of normalized working capital.
2) product profitability Prod. characterizes the cost effectiveness of its production and marketing:
where Etc- profit from the sale of products (works, services);
Wed- total cost of goods sold;
As a result of the economic activity of the enterprise, profit (accumulation) is created.
Representing a net increase in the total amount of funds as a whole, accumulation can only be revealed in monetary terms as a generalizing measure of economic activity. Therefore, the accumulation is called financial result of economic activity, those. result expressed in monetary terms.
Profit can only be revealed by accounting. The latter, firstly, calculates the amount of the accumulated accumulation as the financial result of the enterprise, and secondly, takes into account the calculated accumulation as one of the sources of funds and, thirdly, reflects the distribution of profits at the end of the year.
Consequently, object of accounting is profit as the financial result of the economic activity of the enterprise.
General characteristics of the subject of accounting
Consideration of the elements of the economic activity of the enterprise showed that each of them is reflected in accounting and thus is the object of the latter. These objects also include the circulation of funds caused by economic processes, and accumulation as a result of the economic activity of the enterprise. In this way, specific objects of accounting are:
2) labor costs and wages;
3) settlement and credit relations;
4) economic operations and processes and the circulation of funds caused by them;
5) profit (accumulation) as a result of the economic activity of the enterprise.
Some of these objects, having an independent value in detailed indicators, find their generalized expression in the composition of other objects in aggregated accounting indicators.
So, labor costs receive a generalized expression in the composition of funds (work in progress), and wages - in the form of debts to workers and employees for wages - in the composition of sources. Settlement and credit relations are expressed in the form of receivables in the composition of funds, and in the form of accounts payable in the composition of sources. Savings, being one of the sources of funds, are also included in the sources. The circulation of funds caused by economic processes is expressed in the implementation of these processes. In the same way, operations, being elements of processes, find their generalized expression in the latter.
Hence we come to the conclusion that all accounting objects can be summarized in a generalized expression to two main objects:
1) economic means and their sources;
2) economic processes.
This implies that funds and sources, as objects of accounting, also reflect in their generalized indicators labor and its payment, settlement and credit relations and savings, and economic processes - operations and the circulation of funds.
General concept of accounting method
From the previously given characteristics of the elements of economic activity as objects of accounting, the following characteristic features of the subject of this accounting follow.
First, the economic content the totality of funds enterprises are revealed in economic activity in two ways: a) in their placement and use; b) in their sources and destination. Therefore, accounting requires a generalized reflection of the state of funds in two groups, i.e. separately means and separately sources.
Secondly, according to their composition, funds and sources are divided into groups, each of which has its own special economic content and purpose.
Third, the changes in means and sources caused by operations are double and interconnected. Therefore, in accounting, these changes require a double interconnected reflection.
Fourth, economic activity is continuous chain of operations constantly causing changes in means and sources, therefore, "accounting requires a continuous continuous coverage of all operations.
These features of the subject of accounting also determine the ways in which this accounting reflects economic activity.
1. A generalized reflection of the state of funds in two groupings - funds and sources - is given periodically using, balance.
2. The division of funds and sources into groups and the current accounting of each group is carried out using accounts
3. Reflection of double interrelated changes in funds and sources caused by operations is carried out using double entry.
4. Continuous continuous coverage of all operations is carried out. with help documentation.
In this way, the main ways of reflecting the economic activities of enterprises that are part of the accounting method I'm in lyatsya: balance sheet, accounts, double entry, documentation.
In practice, accounting is carried out in this order: first, transactions are recorded in documents, then double interrelated entries are made on the basis of the documents on the accounts, and finally, on the basis of the accounts, a balance sheet is drawn up.
The concept of balance
Characteristics b balance
First, it consists of two parts: one of them is called ". asset (active, active - lat. and the other - passive (passive, inactive - lat.). Assets show funds, while liabilities show sources.
Thus, the funds of the enterprise in accordance with them economic content is received in the balance sheet double reflection: by placement and use - in the asset, by source and destination - in the liability.
Active Passive
Second, both funds and sources are shown in the banlance in grouped, (Fixed assets. Materials, Authorized capital etc.).
Thirdly, funds receive their quantitative expression in the balance sheet in money meter. This provides the possibility of a generalized reflection of funds.
Fourth, funds are shown in the balance sheet at their state at a certain moment. In our example, on January 1, 2000.
The equality of the results of the asset and liability is one of the main features of the balance(from Latin - two-cup scales) and serves as an indispensable condition for its correct compilation.
Hence, the balance as one of the main elements of the accounting method can be briefly characterized as follows: the balance sheet is a way of generalized reflection at a certain point in the monetary value of the economic assets of an enterprise in their double grouping: by placement And use; by source and purpose.
balance form.
The balance is depicted as a special table, divided into two parts vertically. In the left - an asset is placed, and in the right - a liability (Distribute the balance sheet 15)
The heading of the balance sheet contains the words balance (with the name of the company and the date). The word asset heading the left side of the table, in which funds are placed, and the word passive heading the right side, in which sources are placed, no other words are written.
Each group of funds or sources is shown in the balance sheet under a special name and is expressed as a separate amount, it is called a balance sheet item. Eg. materials, authorized capital.
If in the balance sheet it is necessary to show private amounts for individual groups of articles, then in the balance sheet, two columns can be allocated in the asset and liability for private and total amounts.
3.1. Income of enterprises and their use
Under the income of the enterprise means an increase in economic benefits as a result of receipt of cash, other property and (or) repayment of liabilities, leading to an increase in capital. The income of organizations, depending on their nature, conditions of receipt and areas of activity, are divided into income from ordinary activities; operating income; non-operating income and income from other receipts.
Income from ordinary activities is the proceeds from the sale of products, income related to the performance of work, the provision of services.
Operating income is income associated with the provision for a fee for temporary use of the company's assets; receipts related to the provision for a fee of rights arising from patents for inventions, industrial designs and other types of intellectual property; proceeds from participation in the authorized capital of other organizations; the profit received by the enterprise from joint activity; proceeds from the sale of fixed assets and other assets other than cash (except for foreign currency), products, goods; interest received for the provision of the enterprise's funds for use, as well as interest for the bank's use of funds held on the enterprise's account with this bank.
Non-operating income is fines, penalties, forfeits for violation of contractual obligations; assets received free of charge, including under a donation agreement; receipts in compensation for losses caused to the organization; profit of previous years, revealed in the reporting year; amounts of accounts payable and receivable for which the limitation period has expired; exchange differences; amounts, revaluation of assets (except for non-current assets); other non-operating income.
The composition of income from other receipts also includes extraordinary income that arises as a consequence of emergency circumstances (natural disaster, fire, accidents, nationalization of property, etc.); in the form of insurance indemnities, the cost of material assets remaining from the write-off of assets that are not suitable for restoration and further use, etc.
The main component of the company's income is its revenue. Revenue is the main source of formation of the company's own financial resources. The use of proceeds is, on the one hand, the beginning of the circulation of funds in the process of the enterprise's production activities, on the other hand, the stage of distribution processes, at which the state's revenue base is formed, as well as the enterprise's own financial resources.
The proceeds received on the accounts of the enterprise are primarily directed to reimbursement of costs associated with the production and sale of products (payment of invoices to suppliers of material resources, fuel, energy, spare parts, components, purchased semi-finished products, etc.). The other part of the proceeds is used to pay wages, to compensate for the depreciation of fixed assets. Taxes, fees and deductions are paid from the proceeds, which are not included in the cost, but are obligatory for payment from the proceeds to the budgets of various levels (VAT, excises, customs duties, etc.). From the proceeds, the profit of the enterprise is formed, which, after paying taxes, is at its disposal and is directed to solving economic and social problems.
On the basis of regulatory documents, the taxation of the proceeds received by the enterprise is carried out in accordance with one method, which is reflected in the order on the accounting policy of the enterprise:
According to the method of shipment (accrual) of goods and presentation of settlement documents to the customer;
By payment method - by receipt of funds to bank accounts or to the cash desk of the enterprise.
The disadvantage of using the first method is the risk of non-receipt of funds associated with the possible insolvency of the payer. In order to mitigate the negative consequences of non-payments, enterprises have been granted the right to form a reserve for doubtful debts. Its value is determined by the enterprise on the basis of an analysis of the size, composition, dynamics of non-payments.
The use of the second method has advantages in relation to the first, related to the fact that the enterprise can timely pay off the budget and extra-budgetary funds, with resource providers and other business partners, having a real cash source at its disposal. However, when making advance payments for shipped products, its consumer may find itself in a difficult situation, since with the actual receipt of funds on the supplier's accounts, the products may not only not be shipped, but also not produced.
3.2. Planning revenue from product sales
The main source of income of the enterprise associated with its economic activity is the proceeds from the sale of products. Optimal planning of sales proceeds provides the necessary guidelines for the enterprise in making financial and business decisions. The planning of proceeds from the sale of products is carried out similarly to the planning of costs for the production and sale of products. The amount of revenue is determined by the formula:
where T - commercial products intended for release in the planned
O 1 - balances of unsold finished products at the beginning of the planned
O 2 - balances of unsold finished products at the end of the planned
When planning revenue according to the shipping (accrual) method, only finished products in the warehouse at the beginning and end of the planning period are considered unsold products.
When applying the method of accounting for revenue from payment, the expected balances at the beginning of the planning period consist of finished products in stock, including goods shipped, documents for which have not been submitted to the bank; goods shipped, the payment deadline for which has not come; goods shipped but not paid for on time; goods in safe custody with buyers in the form of refusal of acceptance.
At the end of the planning period, the balances of unsold products consist of the balances of finished products in the warehouse and goods shipped, the payment deadline for which has not come.
The following factors influence the amount of proceeds from the sale of products: the volume and structure of production, the cost of production, the assortment, quality, the rhythm of production and shipment, the price level, compliance with contractual conditions, the timely execution of settlement documentation, the forms of payment used, the demand and solvency of the consumer of products, etc. .
3.3. Profit of the enterprise, its formation and use
The profit of the enterprise is the main factor of its economic and social development. Based on the economic content, the profit of an enterprise can be considered a part of the added value that is created as a result of the sale of products and services. From an accounting and reporting point of view, profit is the excess of income over expenses.
Currently, in economic practice, the definition of profit is used - gross, profit from sales, profit for taxation, from ordinary activities, net profit, etc. However, officially, the definition of profit in force in Russian tax legislation is given in relation to the gross profit indicator, which is the amount of profit (loss) from the sale of products (works, services), fixed assets (including land plots), other property of the enterprise and income from non-sales operations, reduced by the amount of expenses on these operations. Profit (loss) from the sale of products (works, services) is determined as the difference between the proceeds from the sale of products (works, services) without value added tax and excises and production and sales costs included in the cost of products (works, services).
Profit, being the most important economic category in the conditions of market relations, performs a number of functions, which include the function as a measure of production efficiency, stimulating and as a source of state revenue generation.
Being the end result of the financial and economic activity of an enterprise or, in other words, the purpose of investing and using capital, profit performs the function of a measure of production efficiency. The amount of profit is determined by many factors, and as a measure of production efficiency, it also depends on the efficiency of the application and use of the components of capital, material, financial, and labor resources.
Being a source of development of production and satisfaction of social benefits, the amount of profit determines the economic behavior of enterprises, their owners and staff, thereby performing a stimulating function.
Forming the revenue part of the state budget and off-budget funds in the form of taxes, economic sanctions and other revenues, profit is a source of implementation of activities related to the goals of state development and the implementation of social tasks.
Profit growth factors are everything that characterizes the concept of production efficiency - the volume of sales of products, their range and range, prices for material resources and finished products, the cost of production, the level of use of fixed working capital, production assets and cash, the quality of management of economic and financial business activities, etc.
The use of profit is an integral part of distribution relations between the state, enterprises and owners of enterprises. The relationship between enterprises and the state is built on the basis of a taxation system, in accordance with which the basis for paying taxes to the budget is gross profit. The distribution of profits remaining at the disposal of the enterprise is regulated mainly by the internal documents of the enterprise (the charter of the enterprise, decisions of meetings of founders and shareholders) and are fixed in the accounting policy of the enterprise. This is the creation of an accumulation fund, consumption and other targeted funds. At the same time, the state, through the provision of certain tax incentives, stimulates the direction of profits for capital investments for industrial purposes and housing construction, for charitable purposes, financing of environmental protection measures, expenses for the maintenance of social facilities, and for research and development. Legislatively established the procedure and size of the creation of the reserve and some other targeted reserve funds. The presence of such reserves provides an increase in shareholding and the ability to withstand the risks of loss of financial stability in the activities of the enterprise, as well as the possibility of paying dividends to the owners and shareholders of the enterprise even in the absence of profit.
3.4. Profit planning
Profit planning is an important part of the company's financial plan. The objects of planning are elements of the gross profit of the enterprise and, first of all, received from the main type of its activity, profit from the sale of products and services. The methodology for planning the elements that make up the profit of an enterprise is different and is determined by the peculiarities in calculating costs and taxing profits by type of its activity. However, the main planning method is the direct counting method. In accordance with this method, the profit from the sale of products (P) is calculated by the formula:
where B is the proceeds from the sale of products;
C is the total cost of goods sold.
The volume of products sold and the cost price are determined for each nomenclature item by successively multiplying each unit of production by the selling price and its cost price.
The planned profit amount (P) can also be calculated using the formula:
,
where P 1 - profit in the balance of finished products at the beginning of the planned
P 2 - profit in the balance of finished products at the end of the planned
P tp - profit from the release of marketable products in the planned period.
Profit in carry-over balances of finished products is determined as the difference between the sum of input and output balances in sales prices and at production cost.
The application of the direct account method involves determining the volume of sales of products according to their nomenclature and assortment, selling prices, compiling cost estimates and estimates for comparable and incomparable products.
As an addition to the direct method for preliminary calculations in enlarged (prospective) planning, analytical methods of profit planning are used. The basis for the enlarged calculation of profits can serve as the cost of 1 ruble. commodity products.
Taking into account the cost of 1 rub. of marketable products, profit is planned for the entire output of marketable products (comparable and incomparable) using the following calculation formula:
,
where P - gross profit from the release of marketable products;
T - commercial products in selling prices;
Z - the cost of producing commercial products, calculated in prices
implementation.
To determine the profit from the sale of products, the result is adjusted for the change in profit in the carry-over balances of finished products.
It is possible to use another analytical method for calculating the planned profit. This method is based on the use in the calculations of the indicator of basic profitability as the ratio of profit on marketable products to its cost for the reporting year. When using this method, the calculation is carried out separately for comparable and incomparable marketable products according to the formula:
,
where Р b is the basic profitability of the production of marketable products in
reporting (base) year;
P about - the expected profit on marketable products for the reporting (base) year;
C tp - the full cost of commercial products in the reporting (base) year.
The calculation is carried out in several stages. Using the indicator of basic profitability, the profit of the planned year is calculated for the planned volume of marketable output. The calculated planned profit is then adjusted in accordance with the change in the cost price in the planned year. The influence of changes in the assortment, quality, grade and prices on the volume of planned profit is determined. The change in profit in unsold balances of finished products at the beginning and end of the planning period is taken into account. Separately, profit is calculated for incomparable commercial products. Then, the planned profit from the sale of products, calculated taking into account all the factors of its change, is summed up with the planned profit from the sale of incomparable marketable products.
The gross profit of the enterprise is formed taking into account the results of its operating and non-operating activities.
3.5. The profitability of the enterprise, its essence. Methods for assessing the efficiency of resource use
The indicator of profit is not absolute in assessing the effectiveness of the enterprise, since it does not reflect its actual result. The basic indicator characterizing the real efficiency of its economic activity is profitability, i.e. an indicator of the effectiveness of the use of the assets of the enterprise, its components in order to make a profit. In accordance with this, the main indicators of profitability and some private ones are distinguished, which are used for analysis when making decisions on the management of financial and economic activities, planning the costs and profits of an enterprise, according to its behavior in the markets of goods, finance and capital.
The main indicators of profitability are:
Profitability of costs (products);
Profitability of sales (sales);
Return on assets (capital);
Profitability of current assets;
Return on equity.
1. Profitability of costs (products) (P c) is defined as the ratio of profit from the sale of products (P p) to the total cost of sales (C) in the analyzed period:
.
This indicator characterizes the efficiency of using the costs associated with the production and sale of marketable products.
2. Profitability of sales (sales) (R pr) is defined as the ratio of profit from the sale of products (P r) to sales proceeds (excluding taxes and deductions) (B) in the analyzed period:
.
Profitability of sales characterizes the level of profitability of the enterprise for its main types of activities. When analyzing this indicator, the interdependence between indicators of sales volume, production costs and product sales prices is taken into account.
3. Return on assets (capital) (R a) is defined as the ratio of profit (balance sheet and net) (P b (h)) to the average value of assets for the analyzed period (A c):
.
The rate of return on assets characterizes the efficiency of use or the overall assessment of the profitability of the enterprise's capital as a whole, both own and borrowed.
4. The profitability of current assets (P ta) is defined as the ratio of the net profit of the enterprise (P h) to the average value of current assets (A ts) of the enterprise's working capital in the analyzed period:
.
The analysis of this indicator characterizes the effectiveness of costs invested in the current assets of the enterprise.
5. Return on equity (R sk) is defined as the ratio of net profit (P h) to the average value of equity (K s) of the enterprise for the analyzed period:
.
The analysis of this indicator characterizes the effectiveness of the use of own funds of the company's shareholders and shows the attractiveness of raising capital in this area of activity, as well as the efficiency of the apparatus of the enterprise, to which the shareholders' funds are transferred to management.
A necessary factor in managing the costs of the enterprise, the objects of production of commercial products and its implementation is the analysis of the relationship and dependence of these most important indicators for assessing the activities of the enterprise. Namely, the ratio of indicators - costs, production volume, profit. An enterprise needs to know the level of production and sales of products at which it will cover costs and begin to make a profit. To determine the minimum volume of output, below which production becomes unprofitable, the indicator of the profitability threshold (break-even point) is used, which is determined by the formula:
From the above formula it can be seen that the analysis of the profitability threshold indicator is based on the principle of dividing the enterprise's costs associated with the production and sale of products into conditionally constant and conditionally variable and calculating the so-called marginal profit (the denominator of the formula). When calculating marginal profit, sales proceeds are cleared of necessary tax and other obligatory payments.
Visually, the definition of the break-even point can be represented as follows: fig. 3.5.1.
Three main lines show the dependence of variable, fixed costs and revenue on the volume of production. The point of the critical volume of production shows the volume of production at which the amount of proceeds from the sale is equal to its full cost. By changing the ratio between fixed and variable costs within the production capabilities of the enterprise, it is possible to solve the problem of optimizing the amount of profit. This dependence is associated with the effect of the production lever, i.e. the margin of financial strength at which the company can afford to reduce the volume of sales, without leading it to unprofitability. The effect of the production leverage is due to the fact that with an increase in the volume of sales of products, the share of fixed costs in the structure of the cost of production decreases and the “effect of additional profit” appears. The effect of the production lever is manifested in the strength of its impact, which is determined by the formula:
The indicator of the strength of the impact of the production lever determines how many times the profit will increase with a one percent increase in revenue from product sales.
Knowing the data on the growth of revenue from sales of products and the strength of the impact of the production lever, it is possible to directly determine the growth in profits with an increase in the volume of output.
Questions for self-control on the topic
1. Classify the income of the enterprise in accordance with the directions of its activities.
3. Methods for planning revenue from product sales.
4. Factors affecting the amount of revenue.
5. Describe the concept of "profit"; sources of its formation, growth factors.
7. Methods of profit planning at the enterprise.
8. Expand the content of the concept of "profitability".
9. Main indicators of profitability, their characteristics.
Related tests
I. Find the correct definition of economic entity
profitability:
1) the absolute amount of the received profit of the enterprise;
2) the absolute amount of profit received from operating activities;
3) the level of profitability of the enterprise;
4) profitability of product sales;
5) the excess of proceeds from the sale of products over its cost;
6) the amount of financial resources of the enterprise, which ensure its production and economic activities;
7) the excess of profit from financial transactions over losses from these transactions;
8) the excess of income from other ordinary activities over losses from this activity.
II. The profit of the enterprise characterizes:
1) economic effect of activity;
2) economic efficiency of its activities;
3) liquidity;
4) solvency.
III. The balance sheet profit is not affected by:
1) the volume of sales of products;
2) price level;
3) unit cost of production;
4) product range;
5) there is no correct answer.
IV. Return divided by total investment and return divided by equity are two effective ways to measure:
1) profitability;
2) liquidity;
3) solvency;
4) expediency of borrowing operations.
V. If the amount of proceeds from the sale of products (goods, performance of work, provision of services) covers only a part of the proceeds, then the proceeds accepted for accounting are determined as:
1) the amount of receivables;
2) the amount of cash receipts;
3) the amount of receipt of funds and other property;
4) the amount of receipts and receivables (in the part not covered by receipts).
VI. Marginal income is:
1) the difference between the proceeds from the sale of products (works, services) and the partial cost calculated at variable costs;
2) the difference between the proceeds from the sale of products (works, services) and the partial cost calculated at fixed costs;
3) the difference between the proceeds from the sale of products (works, services) and the partial cost calculated from the sale of products (works, services) and the full cost.