Italian colonization of the northern and eastern coasts of the Black Sea in the XIII-XV centuries.

Testimonies of travelers Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta about the devastation of the North Caucasus by the Mongols and the resettlement of some Circassians to the Volga and China. Lack of statehood among the peoples of the Kuban region. Genoese Colonies on Taman and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. Unequal trade. Development of the slave trade. Raids of the Crimean Tatars on Kuban in the XY century. The beginning of Turkish aggression in the North. Caucasus in the 2/2 XY century. Message from the Austrian Ambassador in Moscow S. Herberstein about the Pyatigorsk Cherkasy Christians.

Empire of Genghis Khan in the beginning. XIII century Reconnaissance campaign of Subudei and Jochi from the southern Caspian Sea to the North Caucasus. The defeat of the Alan and Polovtsian troops. Mongol campaigns in the Caucasus in 1237 - 40. Northern Caucasus as part of the Ulus of Jochi. The struggle between Tokhtamysh and Timur on the Terek and Kuban in 1396ᴦ. Formation of the Nogai Horde, its settlement in the Kuban steppes.

HISTORY OF KUBAN

The microbe develops resistance to it in 1 year!

Οʜᴎ rule the world!

M/o are not primitive life forms!

Resistance is a lifestyle for mi/o!

The sale of A/B without a prescription should be banned!!!

Workshop-p.75-79

A/B-Vorobiev- p.95-103

Before the antibiotic era -

died from wound infections and puerperal fever.

Antibiotic era –

demographic explosion: decreased mortality, increased birth rates.

(heads are not needed in medicine - it’s all about penicillin)

The era of multidrug resistance –

In pediatrics-

Children are prescribed 40 tons of A/B per year -

There is a diagnostic and treatment protocol - with the determination of the resistance of the pathogen to A/B and the choice of therapy taking into account the toxicity of the drug.

In surgery -

preoperative prophylaxis is harmful: decreased immunity

postoperative - meaningless

tender - intraoperative- 30 minutes before the incision

Paul Ehrlich– magic bullet principle:

ʼʼkill the living in the living - without harming the living!ʼʼ

Difficult task -

Let's remember words by Louis Pasteur:ʼʼLast thing for germs!!!

The microbe lived, the microbe is alive, the microbe will live!!!ʼʼ

Who is Goliath? Man or microbe? -

A man has been developing a new A/B for 20 years,

Abstracts of lectures for full-time and part-time students

for the direction of bachelor's training 131000 – ʼʼOil and gas engineering. Operation and maintenance of oil production facilities,

140400 – ʼʼPower engineering and electrical engineering. Electricity supply,

151900 – ʼʼDesign and technological support for machine-building production. Mechanical engineering technology,

190600 – ʼʼOperation of transport and technological machines and complexes. Automotive service, 230100 - “Informatics and computer technology”

for 1st year full-time and part-time students

5

................................................................................................................ 8

.............. 11

16

18

..................... 22

Lecture 7. Socio-economic development, culture, life, religion of the peoples of Kuban in the XYI - XYIII centuries. ............................................................................ 24

Lecture 8. Relocation of the Black Sea Cossacks to Kuban. .................. 27

Lecture 9. Cossack settlement of the Old and New Lines. Caucasian War 1817 - 64. ................................................................................................................... 31

Lecture 10. Decembrists in Kuban. .......................................................... 35

Lecture 11. Development of capitalism in Kuban. Culture of the peoples of Kuban in the 19th century. ........................................................................................................................ 38

Lecture 12. Kuban and the North Caucasus at the beginning of the 20th century. ................... 44

Lecture 13. Civil War 1918-20. in Kuban. ........................ 49

Lecture 14. The tragedy of collectivization in Kuban. ............................... 52

Lecture 15. Socio-economic development of the North Caucasus Region in 1920 - 30. ................................................................................................................... 55

Lecture 16. Kuban during the Great Patriotic War. .................. 61

Lecture 17. Culture of Kuban in the 20th century. ........................................................ 66

Lecture 1. Primitive communal system in the North-West Caucasus.

Nature and geographical location of the Kuban region. Chalcolithic and Bronze Age. Tribes of the Maykop culture. Kuban culture. Cimmerians. Scythians and Sarmatians in Kuban. Meotian tribes in the stories of ancient authors. Allans and Huns in the North Caucasus in the 2nd-5th centuries AD. Folk beliefs of the Kuban tribes, the penetration of world religions in the 1st millennium AD.

It has been established that Kuban is one of the oldest centers of human appearance in Europe. It is assumed that the first groups of people came here from more southern regions (Transcaucasia, the Middle East). The Bogatyrka site has been discovered on the Taman Peninsula, whose age is estimated at approximately 1 million years. Almost as ancient (750-500 thousand years) are the finds in the Triangular Cave in the upper reaches of the river.
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Urup. This era is called the Ancient or Lower Paleolithic. The Pithecanthropus who lived at that time used tools made from roughly hewn pebbles (so-called choppers and choppers), but they also made more advanced hand axes and cleavers. The main occupations of people were hunting and gathering.

The beginning of the most severe glaciation - the Würm glaciation (150-100 thousand years ago) - coincided with the appearance of a more advanced type of man - the Neanderthal. Cave sites from this time were found in the gorge of the river.
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Guba (Monasheskaya and Barakaevskaya caves, Gubsky canopy No. 1) and in the Khosta area (Akhshtyrskaya, Vorontsovskaya, Navalishenskaya, Atsinskaya, Khostinsky I and II caves). The remains of an artificial dwelling were examined during excavations of an ancient camp of bison hunters near the village. Ilsky.

The end of the Ice Age or Upper Paleolithic (40-13 thousand years ago) is marked by the appearance of modern humans. Monuments of this time are known in the Guba Gorge and the area of ​​modern ᴦ. Sochi. Hunting remained the main occupation and source of food. Residents of the Gub Gorge hunted wild horses, and in the Sochi-Adler region the main game was cave bears.

A Neolithic monument of the most ancient cattle breeders of the Kuban can be considered a site in the Atsinskaya cave of the 6th millennium BC, where the bones of domesticated dogs, pigs, bulls, goats or sheep were found. Flint tools and fragments of rough clay pots with round and flat bottoms were also found there. Sites of farmers who cultivated fields with hoes made from broken pebbles are open in the Sochi region.

In the 4th millennium BC. the population of Kuban began to master metal. A completely new phenomenon was the burial mounds of steppe cattle breeders who led a semi-mobile lifestyle. It is from the burials under the mounds that the oldest copper items in the region come from - a small dagger and pendant plaques from a necklace.

By the end of the 4th-3rd millennium BC. include monuments of the so-called Maikop-Novosvo-Bodno culture. It developed on the basis of local Neolithic tribes and people from Transcaucasia. Finds from the burial mounds of the nobility in ᴦ have gained worldwide fame. Maikop and near the village of Novosvobodnaya. They found gold, silver and bronze vessels, gold jewelry, a canopy on a silver frame with a bedspread embroidered with gold plaques, bronze and stone tools and clay pots that were already made on a potter's wheel, and the oldest sword in Eastern Europe.

Black Sea coast between 2700 and 1300. BC. occupied the so-called dolmen culture. It became famous for its unique burial structures - dolmens. These are quadrangular stone tombs with a flat roof. It is believed that their ancestors arrived in the Caucasus from the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts. Having settled on the Black Sea coast, they were engaged in hoe farming, livestock breeding, and hunting and fishing retained a significant role in their economy.

The steppes of the right bank of the Kuban in the 3rd millennium BC. occupied by semi-nomadic tribes of the Yamnaya and Novotitarovskaya cultures.
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From them, only burials under mounds have been preserved, in which primitive vessels, a few tools made of stone, bone, and, less commonly, bronze, and jewelry have been found. Interesting are the remains of carts that served ancient cattle breeders not only as transport, but also as housing. The body of the cart was assembled from wooden blocks or beams, and the four wheels were massive, small and had no spokes. It is believed that the carriers of the Yamnaya culture moved to the territory of our region from Ukraine, and the “Novotitarovtsy” came from the south.

The beginning of the Iron Age in Kuban dates back to the end. IX - beginning VIII centuries BC. By this time, the region was inhabited by tribes, which in ancient sources are called places (after the ancient name of the Sea of ​​​​Azov - Meotida). It is believed that their origin is connected with the carriers of the Kobyakovo culture of the Bronze Age.

The ancient Greeks considered the tribes of the Taman Peninsula and the coast of the Azov Sea to be Meotian: the Sinds, Dandarii, Tarpeti, Sittakeni, Doskhi, Fatei, Psesi, Toreti and Kerketi. Tribes of the Black Sea coast are mentioned that were not included in the Maeotians: the Achaeans, Zikhs and Geniokhs.

Psess, Doskhi, Zikhi and Geniokh probably spoke languages ​​of Adyghe-Abkhaz origin. The name “Sindians” is of Indo-European origin, and “Dandarii” is of Iranian origin.

The Meotians were engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding. They cultivated the floodplains of the Kuban and its tributaries, obtaining high yields. The Meotians raised large and small cattle, and were engaged in pig and horse breeding. Fishing was developed. Significant changes occurred at the turn of the 2nd – 3rd centuries. AD At this time, monuments of the Meotian and Sarmatian cultures disappeared in the Kuban.

Lecture 2. Greek colonization of the Northern and Eastern coasts of the Black Sea.

Reasons for colonization of the 12th - 19th centuries. BC. Olbia, Chersonesos, Panticapaeum. History of the Bosporan Kingdom (Y century BC - 4th century AD). Transit trade is the reason for the rise of Panticapaeum and Phanagoria. Greek colonies on Taman. Archeology of the Black Sea coast of the North Caucasus about the life and religion of Greek colonists; terracotta of Kuban. The beginning of the Great Migration of Peoples and the decline of the Bosporan Kingdom.

No later than the 7th century. BC. Regular contacts between the tribes of the Kuban region and the ancient world were established. Let us note that the development of the northeastern shores of the Black Sea by the Hellenes was only a stage of the so-called. The great Greek colonization, which began in the 8th century. BC. and covering the basins of the Black and Mediterranean Seas.

In the XI-X centuries. BC. The first ancient colonies appear in Taman and Crimea. These include Phanagoria (modern.
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village Sennaya), Hermonassa (modern.
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Taman), Kepy, Patray, Tiramba (modern.
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Peresyp), Bata (Novorossiysk district) and Torik (Gelendzhik district). In the 4th century. BC. On the site of Anapa, the colony of Gorgippia appeared. The colonists probably entered into agreements with the Sinds and Kerkets, on whose lands they settled. Findings of painted antique dishes from the 6th century testify to the peaceful relations between the Greeks and the tribes of the Kuban. BC. at Maeotian settlements. However, the relationship between the Hellenes and the barbarians cannot be called idyllic. This, for example, is evidenced by the appearance of fortifications among colonists starting in the 6th century. BC.

At 480 ᴦ. BC. (according to the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus) a number of Greek colonies of Eastern Crimea and Taman rallied around the ruler of Panticapaeum (modern.
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Kerch), creating a single Bosporan kingdom. Panticapaeum was by that time the richest Greek colony in the region. It was he who became the first to mint his own coin here. The Greeks called the Kerch Strait the Bosporus, on both banks of which the territory of the first state formation in the history of the entire Caucasus stretched. The ruling dynasty in the Bosporus was the Archeanactids, whose representatives succeeded each other on the throne until 438 ᴦ. BC. However, not all colonies agreed to lose their political and economic independence. For this reason, the territory of the kingdom subsequently expanded not only due to the lands of the barbarians, but also to the colonies that were disobedient to Panticapaeum.

The Greeks and tribes of the Kuban region equally suffered from the seasonal movements of the Scythians. For this reason, already at 479 ᴦ. BC. The Sinds helped the Greeks in the construction of a rampart that blocked the Kerch Peninsula and put an end to the Scythian raids. The colonies strengthened their position within a single state. This was facilitated, for example, by trade with Greece. For many years, the main trading partner of the Bosporan kingdom was Athens. Export items included grain (the supply of which was of a strategic nature), fish, leather, honey, timber, etc.
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A shameful page in the history of the Greeks’ exploration of the Black Sea region is the slave trade, which they encouraged in every possible way among the local population. Luxury goods, wines, fabrics, weapons, etc. were imported to the Bosporus.

The Greeks sought to develop peaceful relations and profitable exchanges with the tribes of the Kuban region. The capital of one of the local tribes, Labritha, was fortified according to the Greek model. Under the influence of the Greeks, the Maeotians were already at the end. V century BC. mastered the pottery wheel. In turn, the Greeks adopted costumes, fighting techniques, and elements of weapons from local tribes. Under the influence of the “barbarians,” the Greek funeral rite partially changed.

At 438 ᴦ. BC. power in the Bosporus passed to a new dynasty - the Spartokids, perhaps already of “barbarian”, rather than Greek, origin. At the end of V BC. The kings of Bosporus gained a foothold in the Kuban and began the gradual subjugation of the Maeotian tribes. The subjugation of the Meotian tribes only contributed to their further development.

K con. IV century BC. The Bosporan kingdom weakened. The campaigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great interfered with the normal foreign trade of the Bosporus. At 310 ᴦ. BC. An internecine war broke out between the sons of King Perisad for the Bosporan throne. According to written evidence, Greeks, Thracians and Scythians took part in the war.

Very soon, the Bosporus colonies and the Kuban tribes allied with Bosporus found themselves drawn into the wars that Mithridates waged against Rome in 89-63. BC. The sources mention the Meotian leader Olfak, who tried to kill the Roman commander Lucullus by cunning. The Mithridatic Wars, which invariably ended in Roman victories, depleted the resources of Greek cities, causing discontent and palace coups. The son of Mithridates, Pharnaces II, became the ruler of Bosporus. Phanagoria, which led the uprising against Mithridates, received autonomy from the hands of Rome.

In the 3rd century. AD a protracted crisis began in the Bosporus. It was associated both with the general crisis of ancient slavery and with the departure of a significant part of the local barbarians, who had previously provided the Greeks with agricultural products and slaves. At the same time, in the 3rd century. The Black Sea region was hit by raids by the German Goths and their allies. Usurpers seized power in Panticapaeum. At this time, many rural settlements perished in the 230s. Gorgippia was destroyed. Finally, in the 370s. The Bosporan cities were invaded by the Huns, who emerged from the depths of Asia.

Lecture 3. Tmutarakan principality on Taman in the X - XI centuries.

Svyatoslav's campaigns against the Khazars, Yases and Kasogs. Tmutarakan is a refuge for outcast princes. The victory of Mstislav Vladimirovich over the Kasogs, the inclusion of the Kuban squad in the prince’s army. Enmity of the Tmutarakan prince with Byzantium. The discovery of the “Tmutarakan stone” by the Black Sea Cossacks. The loss of Taman by the Russian princes due to the Polovtsian invasion. The similarity of the military customs of the Scythians and Pechenegs. Traces of Polovtsian nomads in the North Caucasus; “Polovtsian women” - monuments of the Kuban nomads of the 11th - 12th centuries.

Trans-Kuban and Taman in Khazar times were inhabited by the ancestors of the Circassians, united in two tribal unions: Zikh and Kasozh. The Zikhs settled on the coast of the North-Eastern Black Sea region up to Taman. The Kasogs occupied the internal territories of Transkuban.

The fate of the Kasogs was different. The most famous leader of the Kasogs was Prince Inal, who managed to subjugate the Zikhs for a short period. The memory of him was preserved in Adygo-Kabardian genealogies. According to legend, he became the ancestor of most of the Adyghe princely families. The Kasogs faithfully served the Khazars, taking part on their side in all wars, restraining the Alans and Zikhs from raiding the lands of the Kaganate. The Zikhs were distinguished by their belligerence and are mentioned among the mercenary soldiers of the Byzantine army. By the 10th century the territory of the Black Sea coast from Abkhazia to Taman was called Zikhia. Their southern neighbor was Abkhazia.

The ancestors of the Circassians remained the main sedentary population of the Kuban in the 10th-19th centuries. The associations of Zikhs and Kasogs break up into separate tribes that settled in the North-Eastern Black Sea region, in the Trans-Kuban region and in the South-Eastern Azov region.

In the Kuban region, Great Bulgaria became such an early state formation. Even at the beginning of the 7th century, after the collapse of the first Turkic Khaganate in the North Caucasus, new tribal associations arose. In the east of the region, a tribal union led by the Khazars was gaining strength. In the central and western parts of the Ciscaucasia and in the mountains, the Alans became stronger, and in the Eastern Azov region, an association of nomads led by the Bulgarians took shape. In Byzantine historical works, the Azov nomads appear under different names: Huns, Gunnogundurs, Utigurs, Onogurs, etc. Their country is often called Onoguria, and from the 7th century. also Black Bulgaria

This was taken advantage of by their eastern neighbors, the Khazars, who by this time stood at the head of a strong young state formation that occupied the steppes of the Eastern Ciscaucasia and the Northern Caspian region. During the second half of the 7th century. The Khazars broke the resistance of the Bulgarians and subjugated the steppes of the western part of the North Caucasus and the Northern Black Sea region.

In such a situation, Christianity became for many peoples of the North-Eastern Black Sea region a symbol of spiritual independence. Christianity already had a long history here. According to Christian tradition, the inhabitants of the North-Eastern Black Sea region were baptized by the Apostle Andrew the First-Called. Secret communities of the first Christians existed in the Bosporan cities. Already at the beginning of the 4th century. n. e. A Christian diocese arose on the territory of the Bosporan kingdom, headed by Bishop Domnus.

In the 10th century The diocesan center was moved to Tamatarkha (now the village of Taman), which became one of the basic Christian centers in the North-West Caucasus. Byzantine priests preached among the Zikhs and Kasogs and promoted temple construction in the region. The Tamatarcha or Zikh diocese retained this important status later, in the 11th century, when Tamatarcha, under the name Tmutarakan, became one of the appanages of Kievan Rus. The city of Tmutarakan was first mentioned in the Tale of Bygone Years in 988, when Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich allocated this principality as an inheritance to his son Mstislav, who was then still a child. Tmutarakan, according to many scientists, was located on the site of the modern village of Taman. However, the path for mass Slavic colonization of the Don region, the Azov region and the Black Sea region was opened not by the “baptizer of Russia”, but by his great father, Svyatoslav Igorevich, who defeated in the middle.
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960s. Khazar Khaganate.

The reign of Mstislav Vladimirovich was the flourishing of the Tmutarakan principality and at the same time the growth of the territory of Kievan Rus. In this regard, it is extremely important to emphasize that despite the absence of common borders with the Old Russian state, the Tmutarakan principality was a Russian principality and, accordingly, part of Kievan Rus. It is believed that the borders of the Tmutarakan principality reached the lower reaches of the Don, where the city of Belaya Vezha was part of the principality. The Tmutarakan principality (initially small in size - approximately 25-30 sq. km) also included the Kerch Peninsula with the city of Korchev (now Kerch).

During the reign of Mstislav, the principality determined politics, perhaps, throughout the entire North Caucasus. There is brisk trade with Byzantium, the rest of Russia, and the peoples of the North Caucasus. The city was surrounded by fortress walls made of adobe (unbaked brick). It mints its own coin.

The population of the city of Tmutarakan, like the principality, was multinational. Greeks, Slavs, Jews and Khazars lived here. It should be noted that during the reign of Mstislav Vladimirovich, a significant part of the population of the principality were Circassians, incl. Christians, people from the Black Sea and Kuban Adyghe communities.

Between 1016 and 1017, Mstislav made his first campaign against the Kasogs (ancestors of the Circassians). The leader of the Kasogs, Rededya, proposed to decide the outcome of the war through single combat. Mstislav, agreeing, defeated the Kasozh prince, ordering the construction of a stone church in honor of the Most Holy Theotokos in Tmutarakan to commemorate the victory. It was one of the first stone churches in Rus'. The Kasogs, having submitted, were included in Mstislav’s squad. It is noteworthy that Mstislav, acting as a talented politician, did not deal with the family of the enemy he killed. The sons of Rededi, according to some Russian genealogical legends, were raised by a prince, who later married his daughter to one of them. Thus, using the social institution of atalism (upbringing) and marriage bonds, widespread among the Kasogs, Mstislav was able to actually strengthen his influence not only in the Rededi clan, but throughout the entire Adyghe community.

Soon after the victory, Mstislav entered into the struggle for the grand-ducal throne with his brother Yaroslav the Wise. In the battle of Listven near Chernigov, Mstislav’s squad won. The Russian lands were divided into two parts: Yaroslav remained as prince in Kiev, and Mstislav became prince in Chernigov. At 1036 ᴦ. Mstislav, having gone hunting, fell ill and soon died, leaving no heir. The unity of Rus' was restored. Chroniclers spoke with praise of Mstislav, emphasizing his courage and generosity towards his squad. Another Tmutarakan prince, Rostislav Vladimirovich, wanted to make a campaign against Byzantium. At the same time, the Byzantine kotopan (official) poisoned the prince during the feast. Another Tmutarakan prince, Gleb Svyatoslavich, became famous for “measuring the sea on ice from Tmutorokan to Korchev.” Information about this has come to us thanks to the discovery of the famous Tmutarakan stone - a marble slab with a corresponding inscription. The slab was found in the village of Taman during the construction of a fortress in 1792.

After this, Tmutarakan for a long time became the refuge of rogue princes. This was the name given to princes who lost their right to the throne. One of the most prominent such princes was Oleg Svyatoslavich.

The Principality becomes an “unknown land” for Russia. The prerequisites and reasons for the disappearance of the principality took decades to develop: 1) the lack of common borders with the center; 2) weak communication channels (mainly through church channels) and what is commonly called the “infrastructure” of the principality, including the administrative apparatus; 3) the all-Russian turmoil of the times of feudal fragmentation, 4) the conquest of the southern Russian steppes by the Polovtsians; 5) destructive earthquake at the end of the 11th century. in the Azov region, the powerful waves of which, finishing off the city, even spread across the Kerch Strait.

The memory of Tmutarakan is preserved only in legends. This city was mentioned more than once in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”. Prince Igor Svyatoslavich, setting out on a campaign against the Polovtsians, wanted to “search for the city of Tmutorokani”. The mysterious “Tmutorokan idol” is also mentioned in the Lay. The sorcerer prince Vseslav “jumped from Tmutorokan to Polotsk” overnight. Soon the principality became a Byzantine possession.

Lecture 4. Kuban lands during the Tatar-Mongol invasion

The Mongol-Tatars began the systematic conquest of the region during the time of Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan. When their main forces set out on a campaign against Rus' in 1236, some of the troops were sent to the Northwestern Caucasus. In the autumn of 1237 ᴦ. The invaders, led by Batu's brothers, invaded the lands of the Circassians. This campaign was not an ordinary raid, since it lasted several months, and the troops were led by major military leaders. It can be assumed that the Adygs were defeated, since one of the sources speaks of the death of the Circassian (Adyghe) “sovereign”.

Then the Mongol-Tatars began to conquer Crimea. According to the prominent ethnographer L.I. Lavrov, it is possible that the campaign in Adygea provided them with the opportunity to invade Crimea through the Kerch Strait. In 1223 ᴦ. their troops raided Sugdeya (Sudak), located in the Crimea. Having devastated the city and its valley, the invaders soon left - the conqueror of the Polovtsians and Russians on Kalka, commander Subudai, did not wait for his arrival. Khan Jochi (son of Genghis Khan), took his warriors to Asia. At the end of 1238 ᴦ. The Mongol-Tatars began a new stage in the conquest of the North Caucasus, striking at the Alans who lived in its central part. After storming the Alanian capital, the nomads remained here for several more months, continuing to suppress other centers of resistance. During the Alan campaign, Batu sent his troops to conquer Dagestan (1239-1240). The invasion was accompanied by the destruction of villages and mass extermination of inhabitants. At the same time, the campaigns were 1237-1240. did not lead to the final conquest of the North Caucasus by the Mongol-Tatars.

In Crimea at that time, a new ulus (province) of the Golden Horde emerged - a state entity within the Mongol Empire. After another internecine massacre in the 1360s. The Golden Horde was divided into two parts - eastern and western, in the Northern Black Sea region and Crimea in 1367 ᴦ. Temnik Mamai came to power.

In the first half of the 15th century. centrifugal processes covered the vast territory of the collapsing Golden Horde, leading to the isolation of the Kazan, Astrakhan and Crimean khanates. Back in the 14th century. In Crimea, several feudal families acquired special power due to their wealth: Shirins, Baryns, Sidzhiuts, Argins, Suleshovs, then the Mansurs. In their possessions (beyliks) they had significant immune rights, being almost independent of the khan's will. The Crimean Khanate arose as a result of the desire of these owners of Crimea to gain complete independence. It was the settlement of several noble families in Crimea that formed beyliks - large feudal principalities - that most contributed to the emergence of a new state. The Golden Horde could no longer stop the escalation of separatist sentiments in Crimea. With the death of Edigei in 142O ᴦ. The Golden Horde period in the history of Crimea ended. The first khan to found a new dynasty in the mid-1420s was Hadji Giray, a protege to the throne of powerful beys, a Genghisid by birth. It should be noted the role of the Turks and Genoese in the formation of the new state. The Khanate included the lands between the Danube and the Dnieper, the Azov region and a significant part of the Kuban. Actually, Crimean Tatars lived in Crimea, and outside its borders, incl. in the Kuban - Nogai Tatars, subordinate to the Crimean Khan. The largest number of Nogai Tatars moved to Kuban from the Volga region in the 16th-17th centuries.

Lecture 5. Circassia in the XIII - XY centuries. Genoese colonies in the North Caucasus.

The establishment of the Italians in the region was accompanied for decades by a bitter struggle between various forces that claimed influence here: Byzantium, the Crimean Khanate, Genoa, Venice, PiZa.. As a result of fierce rivalry with the Venetian Republic, which founded at the beginning of the 12th century. colonies in the form of trading posts on the southern coast of the Crimean peninsula, Genoa became the monopoly owner of sea trade routes passing along the Crimean coast. The interest of Italian merchants in the Black Sea was caused primarily by the fact that the traditional trade routes between the East and Europe (passing mainly through the Mediterranean) were disrupted as a result of the Mongol-Tatar conquest of the world. The northern transit routes passing through Central and Central Asia to the Black Sea acquired major importance, which explained the revival of Black Sea trade. But the power of Genoa rested primarily on mediation in the delivery of oriental goods to European markets. For this reason, the Italians were forced to look for new ways (through the Black and Azov Seas) to maintain their monopoly position in this area, not wanting to lose huge profits. At the same time, Byzantium stood in the way of establishing merchant republics here, maintaining significant positions in the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region. Back in 1142 ᴦ. The Genoese tried to conclude an agreement with Emperor John (Comnenos), however, to no avail. It happened that the Byzantine emperors officially prohibited Italians from visiting points of important commercial importance, incl. Taman and Kerch. Nevertheless, the weakened Byzantium gradually retreated from its possessions in the Crimea.

Genoa received the exclusive right to trade in the Black Sea, unhindered passage through the Black Sea straits (connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean), duty-free trade in all Possessions of the Empire, etc.

So, in the 1260-1270s. active Genoese colonization of the Black Sea coast begins. First, the southern coast of Crimea is colonized. Trading posts appeared in Bosporo (Kerch), Chembalo (Balaklava). Several colonies were founded in the North-Eastern Black Sea region - Kopa (Slavyansk-on-Kuban), Matrega (Taman village), Mala (Anapa), Kalolimen (modern district.
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Novorossiysk), Mavrolako (Gelendzhik). Tana (Azov), which had a rich fish market and was of strategic importance in the system of trading points lying between Europe and Asia, was of utmost importance for preserving the positions of the Genoese in the Azov region. Bread, salted fish and caviar were exported en masse from Tana - mainly to Constantinople and Genoa. Tana was of enormous economic importance - the transit route to Central Asia and the Far East ran through it.

Kafa became the political and economic center of all Genoese colonies, the focus of all Black Sea (transit) trade. The Genoese behaved at home on the Black Sea, completely expelling Greek merchants from there. It should be noted that all Italian colonies in Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region were multinational in composition. Over time, differentiation of the Genoese colonies occurs, among which the following can be distinguished: 1) those that retained commercial importance (Kafa, Tana); 2) important fortresses and centers of agricultural districts (Soldaya, Chembalo); 3) colonies in which power was actually exercised by local (Circassian or Genoese) princes, despite the presence of officials from Kafa (Mala, Barir, Matrega, Kopa).

The administrative apparatus created by the Genoese gradually became more complex and expanded - as their entire colonial system on the Black Sea grew. Already in 1290 ᴦ. Kafa had its own charter, which essentially determined the entire internal organization and structure of the Black Sea colonies, for which Kafa was the administrative center. Formally, the government was republican in nature.
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The Italian position in the region was never strong. Kafa itself was destroyed several times by the Tatars - in 1298, 1308, and the Genoese were forced to flee. During the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312-1342), the Genoese again appeared on the shores of the Gulf of Feodosia. In 1313 ᴦ. An embassy from Genoa was sent to the Horde, which agreed with the khan on the conditions for the return of the Genoese to the ruins of Kafa, and in 1316 ᴦ. the reviving city received a new Charter. By the middle of the 14th century. Kafa became a powerful fortress, and in the 1380s. The outer line of defense of the city was erected. Despite the complicated relations with the Tatars (since 1434, the Genoese began to pay constant tribute to the Crimean Khan Hadji Giray, their worst enemy), Genoa goes to enormous expense to restore its presence in Crimea. After all, it undoubtedly received large incomes from trade with the local population, the export of colonial goods and slaves to Europe. The Genoese attempted to develop silver mines in the Caucasus Mountains. Exploring local lands, they carefully mapped them.

Documents dating back to the 13th century. they talk about the exchange of goods with the Circassians at the mouth of the Kuban, about the fair in Kop. In exchange for caviar and fish, the local population received coarse fabrics, and the Genoese received huge profits, which sources even mention in the 16th century. The following goods were exported to Europe: salted fish, caviar, timber, grain (millet, barley, wheat), fruits, vegetables, wine, meat, furs, wax, leather, resin, hemp. The importance of grain supplies from the colonies is evidenced by numerous documents. When in the early 1340s. trade through Tana and Kafa was interrupted, and a serious shortage of rye and salt soon arose in Byzantium. In the contracts of Kafa for the 13th century. Large transports of rye, barley and millet sent to Trebizond and Sam-sun often appear. The grain harvests of the Alans and Circassians found quick sales among the Tatars in the barren Crimea. In exchange for goods provided by the Circassians, the Genoese offered them salt, rice, mustard, spices, cotton fabrics, raw cotton, soap, incense, incl. incense, ginger (by mixing this with honey, the Circassians brewed a strong drink). The Circassian nobility willingly purchased expensive types of fabrics, luxury items - carpets, jewelry, art glass, and richly decorated weapons. Trade was predominantly of an exchange nature; monetary relations hardly penetrated into this sphere.

A shameful page in the history of the Italian presence in the North Caucasus is the slave trade, encouraged in every possible way by Genoa and the Café administration. Most of the slaves sold in the Cafe were of Caucasian origin: Circassians, Lezgins, Abkhazians. They also traded slaves from Georgians and Russians. Mid-15th century - a turning point in the history of the Genoese colonies. In 1453: the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire ceased to exist, and the sea route connecting the Genoese colonies on the Black Sea with the metropolis was taken under control by the Turks. But the fatal blow to the colonies was dealt only after the Ottoman Turks concluded a truce with Venice (1474). May 31, 1475 ᴦ. A Turkish squadron approached the Cafe. Kafa, which had powerful fortifications, surrendered a few days later. In the second half 1475 ᴦ. The Turks made a campaign towards the Don and the Azov region, capturing Matrega, Kopa, Tana and others.
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The center of the Ottoman possessions in the Black Sea region became Kafa, where the Sultan's governor was located.

Lecture 6. Russian-Adyghe relations in the XY - XYII centuries.

Italian colonization of the northern and eastern coasts of the Black Sea in the XIII-XV centuries. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Italian colonization of the northern and eastern coast of the Black Sea in the XIII-XV centuries." 2017, 2018.

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Italian colonies on the coastAzov and Black Seasth

Italian trading post colony

In the XIII-XV centuries. Italian trading posts founded by Genoa, Venice and Pisa appeared in the Black Sea and Azov regions. After the Crusaders captured Constantinople in 1204, Italian merchants settled in Byzantium, and from Constantinople they penetrated into Crimea and the coast of the Sea of ​​​​Azov. One of the first trading posts - Porto Pisano (near modern Taganrog) was founded by Pisa in the first half of the 13th century. The process of intensive trade colonization of the Black Sea region began in the 60s. XIII century, after in 1261 Genoa concluded the Nymphaean Treaty with the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos, according to which it received the right to sail and duty-free trade on the Black Sea. In 1265, the Venetians also received this right. The process of colonization of the Black Sea and Azov regions was accompanied by intense competition both between Genoa and Venice, and between the trading posts they founded.

The Venetians and Genoese also concluded agreements with the khans of the Golden Horde, according to which part of the territory in the Crimea and on the Azov coast was allocated to them for the creation of trade colonies (with recognition of the supreme power of the khan). In the 60s XIII century Genoa settles in Caffa (modern Feodosia), which becomes the largest port and trading center in the Black Sea region. The Venetians created trading posts in Soldaya (Sudak in Crimea, ca. 1287) and Trebizond (in the 80s of the 12th century). In total, there were about 40 Italian trading posts in the Crimea, Azov region and the Caucasus.

These colonies were governed by bailo consuls, elected in the metropolis for 1-2 years. Together with the consuls, the trading posts were governed by elected city councils consisting of merchant nobiles (citizens of the metropolis) and citizens of the trading posts. The citizens of the trading posts were mainly Italians (who made up a minority of the townspeople), although the composition of the urban population was extremely varied: Greeks, Armenians, Russians, Jews, Tatars, etc. Non-Italians had certain legal rights, freedom of religion, and could perform military and civil service (except for occupation elected positions), participate in joint trading companies. But the Genoese and Venetian colonies, like their metropolises, were constantly at odds with each other, although in the same colony (for example, Trebizond or Tana) there could be trading posts of two trading republics. The colonies were periodically subjected to devastation by the Tatars, but they were destroyed only by the Turkish conquest. In 1453, after the fall of Constantinople, the trading posts were cut off from the metropolis and were gradually conquered by the Ottomans.

According to the treaty of 1332, concluded by Ambassador A. Zeno and Khan Uzbek, Venice received a plot of land on the left bank of the Don, near the city of Azak. The most remote Venetian trading post, Tana, was founded here. It was managed, like other trading posts, by the Venetian consul. Almost simultaneously with the Venetians, the Genoese created their own trading post in Tana. Factories paid Uzbek Khan a three percent duty on goods passing through them. Living conditions in Tana were not easy; the Genoese and Venetians were often at odds with each other. In addition, the inhabitants of the trading posts experienced a constant threat from nomads, who were both trading partners and enemies.

The competitive struggle between Venice and Genoa for Tana ended in the victory of Genoa. Under Khan Janibek in 1343, Tana was captured by the Tatars, and the Venetians were expelled for five years (the reason for this expulsion was the murder of a Tatar in Tana). Following the expulsion from Tana, Venice was defeated in the war with Genoa and in 1355 access to Tana was denied for another 3 years. In 1381, Venice was again defeated by Genoa, after which it lost access to Tana for another 2 years. Thus, the Genoese began to dominate in Tana. Italian trading post colony

Wheat, fish and caviar, furs, wax, spices and sandalwood (in transit from the East), leather, and honey were exported from Tana to Italy. Tana imported fabrics, copper and tin. One of the main sources of income was the slave trade. Representing a continuation of Azak, Tana was also surrounded by stone walls and turned into a fortress. Many interesting monuments remain from Italian Tana. Among them is a white marble tombstone on the grave of the envoy and consul of the Venetian Republic, Giacomo Cornaro, who died in Tana in 1362.

Like Azak, Tana suffered during Timur’s campaign against the Horde in 1395. Around 1400, it was rebuilt. Tana was attacked by the Tatars several more times: in 1410, 1418, 1442. In the last period of Tana’s existence, the Genoese and Venetians were forced to show solidarity and mutual assistance in the face of an external threat. However, it was not external danger that led to the gradual decline of Tana, but the cessation of transit trade with the countries of the East, as a result of Timur’s defeat of Khorezm, one of the main partners in the East. By the time Tana was captured by the Ottomans in 1475, it had already fallen into disrepair.

The Italians also penetrated into the Caucasus. The most important Genoese colonies were Matrenga, Kopa (on the right bank of the Kuban), Mapa (Anapa), Pesce (at the mouth of the Kuban), and others. Venice had only two significant trading posts here - in Tana and Trebizond.

The largest Italian colony in the Caucasus was Matrenga (formerly Tmutarakan on the Taman Peninsula). Until the beginning of the 15th century. Matrenga was under the rule of the Circassian prince. In 1419, after the marriage of the Genoese Ghisolfi with the daughter of the Circassian prince Bika-Khanum, Matrenga became the possession of the Ghisolfi family. The number of Italians - residents of Matrenga - was insignificant; The Greek and Adyghe population mainly predominated. Matrenga was a trading outpost in the North Caucasus. The basis for trade with Genoa was the export of fish and caviar, furs, leather, bread, wax and honey. One of the most important export items were slaves who were captured during military raids. Slaves were supplied to the Genoese by Tatars, Circassians, Alans and other peoples of the Caucasus. Often the Genoese themselves organized expeditions for slaves. The Italians imported a variety of fabrics, carpets, raw cotton, Venetian glass, soap, saber blades, spices, etc. to the North Caucasus.

From Matrenga and other colonies, the Italians moved further into the mountains of the Northwestern Caucasus. This is evidenced by the ruins of castles, towers and churches in the mountains, and stone tombstone crosses. This is also where the missionary activity of the Catholic Church originated. After the formation of the Crimean Khanate in 1433, the Genoese colonies were forced to pay tribute to it. The end of Matrenga and other colonies was put in the 70s. XV century The Ottomans captured Caffa and Tana.

The other cities of the peninsula did not legally belong to the Golden Horde, but their actual dependence on the Mongols, both from a political and economic point of view, was very great. On the other hand, the Sarai khans were interested in the activities of Italian trading colonies, which represented an important link in relations between
East and Western Europe 7th century. Without a description of these settlements, the picture of urban life on the Crimean Peninsula will be clearly incomplete.

Vosporo (Kerch). In the 13th century. this settlement was abandoned and did not play any noticeable role in the life of the peninsula. Who visited it in the 30s of the 14th century. Ibn-Batuta reports about it very briefly, mentioning only the church there 77. Around the same time, the Venetians 78 established themselves in Vosporo, who were later replaced by the Genoese79. The role of this settlement in the economic life of the peninsula was extremely small.

Cafe. The modern city of Feodosia. Until the 60s of the 13th century. was a small village. In 1266, the Mongols allowed the Genoese to establish a trading colony here80, which in the 14th century. turned into the administrative center of all Genoese possessions in the Northern Black Sea region. In the middle of the 14th century. the city is fortified with powerful stone walls and towers, replacing wooden ones. Having visited here in the 30s of the 14th century. Ibn-Batuta reports that the city was large, especially emphasizing that in the harbor there were “up to 200 military and cargo ships, small and large” 81. From here furs, leather, silks, expensive fabrics, oriental spices, and dyes were exported to Western Europe82. Slaves were a special export item. According to Ibn-Batuta, the main population of the city were Christians83 (Genoese, Greeks, Armenians), but besides them, Muslims also lived here, who had not only mosques, but also their own judge84. The Genoese city existed until 1475, when it was captured by the Ottomans: by this time there were only 300 Genoese here, and the bulk of the population consisted of Greeks and Armenians.” Along with trade, various types of handicraft production were widely developed in the Cafe *.

Soldaya (Pike perch). Before the heyday of Kafa, this city was one of the largest centers of Black Sea trade. Rubruk, who visited here in 1253, depicts it as a busy transit point connecting the regions of Northern Europe and the Mediterranean 87. The competition of Kafa and the defeat of Soldaya by Nogai in 1299 dramatically changed the position of the city, as evidenced by Ibn-Batuta’s message about the destruction of most of it. Taking advantage of this, the Genoese captured the city in 1365 and fortified themselves here, erecting powerful fortifications 89. Having achieved their main goal - the elimination of the trade competitor Kafa - they turned Soldaya into their stronghold military point on the Crimean southern coast.

Cembalo (Balaclava). Until the middle of the 14th century. this city with a very convenient harbor belonged to the Principality of Theodoro. In the 50s of the XIV century. it was captured by the Genoese, who immediately began construction of fortresses here * The inclusion of Cembalo in the sphere of Kafa's possessions extended its control to the entire Crimean southern coast and significantly undermined trade competition from the rulers of Theodoro. The main role assigned to the new fortress was to limit the trade and political activities of the princes of Theodoro in the western part of the peninsula. This is confirmed by the attacks of the Genoese on another port of the Theodorites - Kalamita91.

Theodoro. The capital of the small principality of the same name in western Crimea; its remains are located on Mount Mangup 92. The owners of the principality, in order to maintain their power, had to maneuver between the Mongols and the Genoese, and the latter apparently posed a great danger. Despite this, the city and principality existed until 1475, when the Ottomans invaded Crimea.

The described settlements of the southern coastal strip of the Crimean Peninsula include only large cities. In addition to them, along the entire coastline there was a significant number of small and medium-sized towns, villages and castles, which in the 14th century. were also in the possession of the Genoese. A.M. Berthier-Delagarde counted 32 such points from Kafa to Chembalo93. All of them made up the rural district of the colony cities, whose population was engaged in agriculture. In general, the Crimean Peninsula with its Genoese city-colonies played a very special role in the economic life of the Golden Horde throughout the 13th and 14th centuries. It was here that all overland caravan trade routes ended and the sea route to the countries of the Middle East, Egypt and Western Europe began. The largest trade artery of the medieval world led to Crimea from the Far East, from where numerous luxury goods were supplied: expensive dishes, silk and brocade fabrics, metal products and jewelry, precious stones and various spices. Goods from the northern regions - Rus' and the Urals - also flocked here, the most valuable of which were furs, specially tanned Bulgarian leathers, honey, wax, and linen fabrics. Finally, a trade route from Lvov connected Crimea with regions of Central Europe.

In addition to the numerous goods that came to Crimea from the deep and very remote regions of Northern Europe, East and Central Asia, India and Iran, there were specific items of constant local trade, the source of which was the surrounding steppes. They were based on grain, horses, fish and slaves. All four export categories were in unabated, constant demand.

The port cities of the peninsula remained the most important points of transit of international trade throughout the 13th-14th centuries. As for the Golden Horde city of Crimea, its role in trade operations decreased somewhat in the 14th century. in connection with the emergence of a more convenient transit center at the mouth of the Don - Azak, where an Italian trading post also settled. Its appearance significantly shortened the path to Kafa, which now passed not through the steppes, but through the Sea of ​​Azov.

Don basin. The Don basin belonged to the central regions of the state and, according to its natural conditions, was divided into two zones. The northern zone was forest-steppe in nature, where, along with open spaces, there were significant forest areas. The southern zone (lower and partially middle reaches of the Don) was steppe. In full accordance with the distribution of plant belts, archaeological data suggest a greater distribution of settled settlements in the northern part of the region under consideration. To the south of Perevoloka (the place of greatest convergence of the Volga and Don), archaeologists have so far identified only one Golden Horde city - Azak, which, however, can only indicate insufficient study of this area, since rare villages are marked here on some medieval maps.

Azak. Remains of the ancient city of the 13th-14th centuries. are located on the territory of the modern city of Azov. The Golden Horde name of the city is well known from written sources and coins minted here. The excavations carried out allow us to speak about the widespread development of various craft industries in it. In the 30s of the 14th century. The importance of Azak as a large trading center increased in connection with the emergence of Genoese and Venetian colonies here, which in Italian sources were called Tana 102. According to the agreement with Khan Uzbek, both colonies were two city blocks adjacent to each other. The fortifications around the Venetian Tana were erected only in the 15th century.

With the advent of the Italian colony in Azak, all goods delivered by caravans from the East began to arrive here. Here they were loaded onto ships and taken to the Mediterranean countries. At the same time, the old route through the Black Sea steppes to the city of Crimea, and from there to Kafa, lost its significance, although it continued to function, judging by the message of Ibn-Batuta”*. Thanks to the vigorous activity of the Italians, Azak in the 14th century. becomes the end point of several major trade routes at once. One of them came from the north along the Don; along it one could get to the capital of the Golden Horde, Sarai al-Jedid, as well as to Rus' and the Kama region. The second path led through the steppes to the east, to the city of Khadzhitarkhan, located in the Volga delta, from where the road to Khorezm opened; it operated back in the 15th century. 105, although its value has dropped sharply. From the south, a road approached Azak from the large North Caucasian city of Madzhar; it was precisely along this line that in the 30s of the 14th century. passed by Ibn-Batuta, m. Convenient geographical location and the presence of direct access to the sea made Azak in the 14th century. one of the main export centers of the Golden Horde.

The greatest expert on world trade of the 14th century. Francesco Balducci Pegolotti gives in his treatise on trade an extensive list of goods passing through Azak and its Italian colony 107. First of all, Asian spices were exported from here: pepper, ginger, saffron, nutmeg and various oils used in medicine. Then came all kinds of fabrics: silk, brocade, cotton and linen. Barbaro reports that in the 14th century. “from Venice alone, six or seven large galleys were sent to Tana to pick up these spices and silk” 108. An extensive export item was furs coming from Rus': skins of sable, beaver, marten, ermine, fox, lynx, squirrel. Honey, wax, and leather were brought from there. Individual merchants specialized in the trade of such constant items of demand as dried and salted fish, caviar, various types of grain and cereals (wheat, rye, buckwheat, millet), as well as the sale of slaves.

Barbaro, m., reports in his notes about the significant reserves of salted fish and caviar that accumulated in Tana at the time of the opening of navigation. Moreover, wheat and rye were loaded onto ships not only in Azax itself, but also in several small ports located on the coast of the Sea of ​​​​Azov "". This can serve as reliable evidence in favor of the local origin of exported grain. There is repeated evidence of the development of the slave trade in the Golden Horde from Eastern and European authors. Not only prisoners captured by the Mongols in wars, but also children of the poor strata of the Golden Horde population who were sold became slaves parents in critical situations “2. A local specific trade item was also the sale of livestock, mainly horses, bulls and camels. Judging by Barbaro’s words, livestock was sold to Western European countries, as far as Italy, as well as to the Near and Middle East, in herds. and the herds were driven along land roads.

A counter flow of goods came to Azak from Mediterranean countries. These were various types of cloth and linen, iron, copper, tin, and also wine.

In 1395 Azak, together with the Italian colony, was destroyed by Timur's troops. After this, the Golden Horde city was never revived, but the Venetians in the 15th century. they again established a trading colony here, securing it with fortress walls, which existed until the appearance of the Ottomans in the Northern Black Sea region (1475)

Matrega. The city was located on the Taman Peninsula, on the site of modern Taman; founded long before the appearance of the Mongols in Europe. The name of the city is well known from Italian sources 288. Its importance increased noticeably after its foundation here at the beginning of the 14th century. Genoese colony, which developed a lively trade with local tribes. The population of Matrega mainly consisted of Greeks and Circassians. In the 15th century the city completely fell under the control of the Genoese, who hastened to strengthen it due to frequent conflicts with the surrounding Circassian population.

Kopa. The city was located at the mouth of the Kuban. Known since the end of the 13th century. as a Genoese colony that specialized in the trade of fish and caviar 289. Sources report an annual spring fair held here, which was attended by numerous fish traders.

Along the eastern coast of the Azov and Black Seas in the 14th century there were 39 Italian colonies 200. Insufficient archaeological research in this area does not allow accurately localizing most of them, but they are known from medieval maps. The colonies themselves were small villages, but such a significant number of them testifies to the brisk trade conducted by the Italians with the local population. Among the goods exported from here, sources name fish of various preparations (dried and salted), caviar, leather, furs, cotton paper, bread, wax, wine, saffron, silver ore, fruits and slaves 291. In turn, the Italians offered the local population cotton, cloth and various expensive types of fabrics, salt, raw cotton, carpets, spices, saber blades 292. In general, the North Caucasus and the Kuban region represented one of the important economic regions of the Golden Horde, as evidenced by the scale of its participation in international trade.

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The establishment of the Italians in the region was accompanied for decades by an intense struggle between various forces that claimed influence here: Byzantium, the Crimean Khanate, Genoa, Venice, Pisa, Amalfi. As a result of fierce rivalry with the Venetian Republic, which founded at the beginning of the 12th century. colonies in the form of trading posts on the southern coast of the Crimean peninsula, Genoa became the monopoly owner of sea trade routes passing along the Crimean coast. The interest of Italian merchants in the Black Sea was caused primarily by the fact that the traditional trade routes between the East and Europe (passing mainly through the Mediterranean) were disrupted as a result of the Mongol-Tatar conquest of the world. The northern transit routes passing through Central and Central Asia to the right sea acquired major importance. The Genoese, pushed away from the Black Sea markets by the Venetians, did not want to put up with this situation. They agreed to conclude an alliance treaty with the Nicene Empire - the Greek state in Asia Minor, which fought against the Crusaders and Venetians for the restoration of the Byzantine Empire. The Nymphaean Treaty between the Nicaean emperor Michael (Palaeologus) and Genoa was concluded in March 1261, and in July of the same year, Greek troops captured Constantinople. The Crusaders were expelled from Byzantium, and the Genoese took the place of the Venetians in Black Sea trade. In exchange for providing material and military assistance, Genoa received the exclusive right to trade in the Black Sea, unhindered passage through the Black Sea straits (connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean), duty-free trade in all Possessions of the Empire, etc. In addition, the Genoese achieved a ban on Venetians trading here.

However, it was necessary to negotiate with the Golden Horde, which ruled Crimea. In the mid-1260s. The Genoese founded their trading post in Kafa (Feodosia), then a small Greek-Alan village, and also acquired nearby lands in agreement with the ulus emir Mangu Khan. So, in the 1260-1270s. active Genoese colonization of the Black Sea coast begins. First, the southern coast of Crimea is colonized. Trading posts appeared in Bosporo (Kerch), Chembalo (Balaklava). Several colonies were founded in the North-Eastern Black Sea region - Kopa (Slavyansk-on-Kuban), Matrega (Taman village), Mala (Anapa), Sebastopolis (Sukhumi), Kalolimen (modern Novorossiysk region), Mavrolako (Gelendzhik) ). Tana (Azov), which had a rich fish market and was of strategic importance in the system of trading points lying between Europe and Asia, was of utmost importance for preserving the positions of the Genoese in the Azov region. Bread, salted fish and caviar were exported en masse from Tana, mainly to Constantinople and Genoa. Tana was of enormous economic importance - the transit route to Central Asia and the Far East ran through it.

Kafa became the political and economic center of all the Genoese colonies, the focus of all Black Sea (transit) trade. The Genoese behaved at home on the Black Sea, completely expelling Greek merchants from there. The title of the Kafa consul - “the head of Kafa and the entire Black Sea” - carried a very real content. Kafa ruled other colonies through its representatives - commandants and consuls. It should be noted that all Italian colonies in Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region were multinational in composition. Even in the Café, the Genoese were a tiny minority. In Soldaya, Chembalo, Matrega, Kop, the Greek and local (Circassian) population predominated. It should also be noted the Slavic, Armenian, Jewish element of the population of the colonies. Over time, differentiation of the Genoese colonies occurs, among which the following can be distinguished: 1) those that retained commercial importance (Kafa, Tana); 2) important fortresses and centers of agricultural districts (Soldaya, Chembalo); 3) colonies in which power was actually exercised by local (Circassian or Genoese) princes, despite the presence of officials from Kafa (Mala, Barir, Matrega, Kopa). Given the local conditions, importance and obvious remoteness of the colonies, Kafa was forced to pursue a flexible policy regarding recognition in some lz They have a high degree of independence. One of the features of some Italian colonies was their dependence not only on Kafa, but also on local rulers - both of Italian and local (Circassian) origin. For example, Matrega was owned by the noble Genoese Ghisolfi from 1419. One of them was V. Ghisolfi , having intermarried with the daughter and heiress of a prince from the local (Circassian) family of Biberdi-Bikha-Khanum, turned this extremely important colony for Kafa into a semi-independent feudal possession of his family. Kafa, aware of the dangerous consequences for itself of the separatism of the local prince, went, however, to support. Ghisolfi Matrega was of strategic importance for the Italians. Located on the shore of the Kerch Strait, it ensured uninterrupted communication between the colonialists and the Bosporo, which was located in the Crimea, and from there, with the other Crimean possessions of Genoa, the noble Genoese ruled in the second half of the 15th century. .

The fragility of Kafa’s position in Kop is also indicated by the fact that, according to the Orta of the Genoese colonies in the Black Sea in 1449, the consul of Kop was supposed to “present gifts to the rulers from Zichia” when he was there, i.e. nobility to the Circassians. The population of the colony was engaged in salting fish and cooking! caviar, as well as the sale of slaves. Fair trade flourished in Kop (from late April to mid-May). Until the consul of Kopa sets the price n; none of the merchants had the right to buy fish - under threat of confiscation

goods. Those who started trading before the consul arrived at the colony or prepared caviar and salted fish at the same time were also severely punished. By the way, no one had the right to farm out salt. The position of consul in Kop was very profitable; it was provided as a reward for services to Genoa. The Mala colony did not have a consulate and trade there was insignificant. Mavrolako was the most convenient port on the Circassian coast of the Black Sea, eagerly visited by merchants. Bosporo was under Circassian rule

prince, representing a principality of a semi-feudal type.

The administrative apparatus created by the Genoese gradually became more complex and expanded - as their entire colonial system on the Black Sea grew. Already in 1290, Kafa had its own charter, which essentially determined the entire internal organization and structure of the Black Sea colonies, for which Kafa was the administrative center. Then new statutes appeared, the most extensive of which dates back to 1449. Formally, the government was republican in nature. At the head of the entire colonial system was a consul, appointed by the Council of Doges of Genoa for a period of one year. He had almost all the power, including the right to torture, determine the price of goods, etc. However, its activities were divided and even controlled by colonial institutions - the board of trustees, the council of elders, two financial managers, and the trade committee. A special position was occupied by 16 general syndics (judges), who administered justice and reprisals. They had the right to put even the consul on trial. This entire Genoese administration, corrupt in its essence, patronized the merchant and feudal nobility, often to the detriment of the prestige of Genoa itself. Even such important positions as the positions of consuls of Tana and Copa were sold with the permission of the Bank of San Giorgio by the consulate of Cafa.

The Italian position in the region was never strong. Kafa itself was destroyed several times by the Tatars - in 1298, 1308, and the Genoese were forced to flee. During the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312-1342), the Genoese again appeared on the shores of the Gulf of Feodosia. In 1313, an embassy from Genoa was sent to the Horde, which agreed with the khan on the conditions for the return of the Genoese to the ruins of Kafa, and in 1316 the reviving city received a new Charter. By the middle of the 14th century. Kafa became a powerful fortress, and in the 1380s. The outer line of defense of the city was erected. Despite the complications in relations with the Tatars (since 1434, the Genoese began to pay constant tribute to the Crimean Khan Hadji Giray, their worst enemy), Genoa is incurring enormous costs to restore its presence in Crimea. After all, it undoubtedly received large incomes from trade with the local population, the export of colonial goods and slaves to Europe. The Genoese attempted to develop silver mines in the Caucasus Mountains. Exploring local lands, they carefully mapped them.

Documents dating back to the 19th century. they talk about the exchange of goods with the Circassians at the mouth of the Kuban, about the fair in Kop. In exchange for caviar and fish, the local population received coarse fabrics, and the Genoese received huge profits, which sources even mention in the 16th century. The following goods were exported to Europe: salted fish, caviar, timber, grain (millet, barley, wheat), fruits, vegetables, wine, meat, furs, wax, leather, resin, hemp. The importance of grain supplies from the colonies is evidenced by numerous documents. When trade through Tana and Kafa was interrupted in the early 1340s, Byzantium soon developed a serious shortage of rye and salt. In the contracts of Kafa for the 13th century. Large transports of rye, barley and millet sent to Trebizond and Sam-sun often appear. The grain harvests of the Alans and Circassians found quick sales among the Tatars in the barren Crimea. In exchange for goods provided by the Circassians, the Genoese offered them salt, rice, mustard, spices, cotton fabrics, raw cotton, soap, incense, including incense, ginger (mixed with honey, the Circassians brewed a strong drink). The Circassian nobility willingly purchased expensive types of fabrics, luxury items - carpets, jewelry, art glass, and richly decorated weapons. Trade was predominantly of an exchange nature, and monetary relations hardly penetrated into this sphere (the aspras served the Genoese mainly for trade with the Tatars). The unit of commodity exchange was bokassin - a measure of simple fabric sufficient to sew one men's shirt. Trade was carried out on an unequal basis, since the Circassians did not know the true value of the goods offered to them for exchange. Cooperating with the local elite, the merchants did not stand on ceremony with ordinary people. Thus, the Circassians who lived in Kop were forced by the Genoese to enter into deals that were profitable for themselves under the threat of depriving them of salt, so necessary for salting fish. One of the paragraphs of the Charter of 1449 ordered that all salt unused in Kop be brought back to Kafa or thrown into sea ​​under the threat of a large fine in case of failure to comply with the order. The population of the colonies of the North-Western Caucasus, in addition, served tax duties in favor of Genoa, trying to free themselves from it, the colonialists encouraged the local nobility with rich gifts (Genoa allocated special funds for this) , were invited to the court of the consul of Kafa. The princes of Mapa and the Taman Peninsula were subsidized with an annual sum from Genoa, naturally, with the aim of keeping them dependent. Trying to strengthen their position, the Genoese stood hand in hand with papal Rome in attempts to Catholicize the local population, which was largely Orthodox.

Anxiety regarding the separatism of the princes and possible uprisings of the Circassians never left the owners of the colonies. The charter of 1449 forbade the Genoese to become related to the local population. In the column of expenses of the Bank of San Giorgio for the colonies, sums allocated for the protection of Genoese merchants, as well as for the defense of Genoese castles on the territory of the colonies themselves, constantly appear. The rulers of Kopa, for example, instead of equipping and sending Circassian warriors to serve in Cafa, themselves took part in the attack of the same Circassians on Genoese merchants traveling to Kopa for trade. From time to time it was necessary to send military ships from Kafa to repel attacks by Circassian corsairs. Second half of the 15th century. - a time of incessant unrest, unrest, uprisings of the population of the colonies, which took place under the common slogan - “Against Kafa!” The colonial system, the meaning of its “functioning” was to obtain the greatest possible benefit with the least risk and cost - through the merciless exploitation of the population of the colonies - at that time showed its complete failure.

A shameful page in the history of the Italian presence in the North Caucasus is the slave trade, which was fully encouraged by Genoa and the Café administration. In particular, the consul of Kopa could receive 6 asprs for each slave taken out from there. Considering the fact that the consul, without receiving a salary, lived on income only from duties and fines, one can imagine with what zeal the official encouraged the sale of captives. Consul Kafa, who controlled the slave trade in the city, also filled not only the local treasury, but also his own pocket. Most of the slaves sold in the Cafe were of Caucasian origin: Circassians, Lezgins, Abkhazians. They also traded slaves from Georgians and Russians. They bought slaves from the Tatars and the Adyghe nobility, who captured prisoners during inter-tribal strife. The Genoese dared to capture the Tatars, for which they took revenge more than once and even destroyed Cafa at the end of the 13th century. The largest centers of the slave trade in the Caucasus were Kafa, Kopa, Tana, Sebastopolis, and Kafa retained the position of the largest of them in the 16th-18th centuries. Some slaves remained in the colonies, but the overwhelming number of them were exported to European countries, Byzantium, Asia Minor, and North Africa. Thousands of slaves were brought to Venice and Genoa, and the market was always full of them. Women predominated, since in Italy, in contrast to Muslim countries, the demand was greater for female slaves. Egyptian sultans replenished their troops and harems with slaves, and new domestic slaves appeared in the houses of noble Europeans. Having put the slave trade on a grand scale, the Italians extracted enormous profits from it. A significant share of responsibility for the development of the slave trade lies, undoubtedly, with the Circassian nobility, who actively participated in raids on their own Circassian neighbors.

Mid-15th century - a turning point in the history of the Genoese colonies. In 1453, the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire ceased to exist, and the sea route connecting the Genoese colonies on the Black Sea with the metropolis was taken under control by the Turks. The Genoese Republic was faced with a real threat of losing all its Black Sea possessions, and in the same year it hastened to sell the colony to the Bank of San Giorgio, with its center in Genoa. This powerful financial institution already had by that time the right to mint coins, collect most taxes in the possessions of Genoa, control over Genoese customs, and a monopoly on the exploitation of salt mines. Having received the right to manage and inalienable ownership of the Black Sea colonies for a low price (5,500 livres), the bank only completed with this act the process of gradual absorption of the Genoese possessions. Already in June 1454, warships of the Ottoman Turks appeared in the Kafa roadstead. They left only after the Turks, having robbed several settlements on the Crimean and Caucasian coasts, obtained a promise from Kafa to pay them an annual tribute. It was clear that the days of Italian rule on the Black Sea shores were numbered. But the fatal blow to the colonies was dealt only after the Ottoman Turks concluded a truce with Venice (1474). On May 31, 1475, a Turkish squadron approached the Cafe. Kafa, which had powerful fortifications, surrendered a few days later. In the second half of 1475, the Turks made a campaign towards the Don and the Azov region, capturing Matrega, Kopa, Tana and others. The center of the Ottoman possessions in the Black Sea region became Kafa, where the Sultan's governor was located.

Thus, the rule of Genoa in the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region ended ingloriously. Striving for rapid enrichment and mercilessly exploiting the population of the colonies, the Genoese failed to create a solid basis for their presence in the region. Quite often, the consuls' reports spoke of clashes and discord with local tribes. “Peaceful” or “friendly” treaties, to which the Circassians were forced, were almost immediately violated by them. The policy of the Circassian nobility in relation to the Kaf administration was distinguished by treachery. There are some positive consequences of the long-term presence of Italians in the Caucasus - the Circassians become known in Europe, since their lands are put on maps by the Genoese; the local population of the colonies, including the Adyghe, become acquainted with the achievements of European culture; the development of trade contributed to an increase in the well-being of a certain part of the Adyghe society. In general, however, Italian colonization had negative consequences for the peoples of the North Caucasus. Attempts to convert the local population to Catholicism were often violent. The slave trade bled the Circassians dry, having a depressing effect on their gene pool. By encouraging this “trade”, the Genoese thereby incited new clashes between the Circassians (since the nobility was interested in capturing captives). The predatory nature of trade retarded the growth of the productive forces of the indigenous population, based on shameless deception, monopoly and the lack of alternative choice among the Circassians .

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In the XI-XII centuries. in Italy there was a rise in crafts and trade. By the end of the 12th century. production workshops appeared in most cities. The strong economic recovery led to trade activity, especially in the Mediterranean basin. Trade between Italian cities and the East brought fabulous profits. At the same time, competition for eastern markets developed.

The most stubborn struggle developed between the city-republics of Venice and Genoa. At first, Venice was successful, ousting Genoa on the Aegean Sea, but not for long. In 1261, according to the so-called Nymphaean Treaty, Genoa received strongholds on the Bosporus, Asia Minor and Crimea for its assistance to Byzantium and ousted the Venetians for almost a century. In 1380, the Venetians defeated the Genoese fleet at Chioggia and re-established their hegemony in the Eastern Mediterranean and Pontus. We do not go into the vicissitudes of the rivalry between Venice and Genoa on the Black Sea, but we note that next to the main characters of this historical action - warriors and merchants - there were always representatives of the Catholic Church, who supported the successes of the sword with the cross and preaching.

The Black Sea region was dominated by the Genoese from the very beginning. Already in 1169, an agreement was concluded between the Genoese and Byzantium, where one of the paragraphs reads: “Ships of Genoese merchants have the right to pass to all lands except Russia and Matrega, unless he (the emperor. - V.K.) is in power permission there" (Russia here - the coast of the Azov Sea, Matrega -). This is the beginning of the Italian penetration. Soon after 1204, Venetians appeared in the Black Sea ports, and Italian trade on Pontus grew. In 1234, the Dominican monk Ricardo landed at the mouth of the Kuban, on behalf of Pope Gregory IX, who made a trip to Volga Bulgaria. His observations about Sychia are interesting, i.e. Zichia and the city of Matrika, “where the prince and the people are Christians and have Greek books and sacred ones.” There is no doubt that we are talking about Orthodox Christians here. In 1238, Genoa and Venice concluded a truce and began real trade expansion in Crimea, and after the Treaty of Nymphaeum, which provided great benefits to the Genoese, the latter began to develop the territory: they acquired a quarter in Caffa. In 1268, Pope Clement IV appointed the first bishop to Caffa. In the 90s, the Italians already had strong positions in Kopario (Kope in the lower Kuban), Matrega (Taman), and Sevastopolis (Sukhum). According to N. Murzakevich, who referred to the Genoese author Girolamo Serra, Genoese merchants from Kiffa reached Dagestan in 1266 and began trading with the peoples living around the Caspian Sea, and also visited Tiflis.

According to the same data, Kaffa was “in charge” of Crimea, Tamanya, Kopa, Kutaisi, Sevastopols and Tana. Another 19th century author. De la Primode wrote that the peoples of the Kuban and Caucasus went to the Genoese in Taman to trade, and the main item of trade was wax, which was in great demand from churches and monasteries. It is not known on what basis the author claimed that the Genoese developed silver mines in the Caucasus Mountains and traces of their work are still visible today. Along the Kuban, the Genoese from the mouth of the river rose upstream 280 miles and, among a “rich and fertile country,” founded a colony, which was ruled by a consul in 1427. According to M.N. Kamenev, back in the 60s of the 19th century. traces of the supposedly Genoese road were visible, starting from Anapa and going through the station. Tsarskaya to Kyafar, Bolshoi Zelenchuk, Marukha, Teberda and from there through the pass to Tsebelda and Terek.

On the lands, the largest Genoese colonies were Matrega and Copa (lo Copa, Copario) and the third was Mapa. Matrega was located on the site of the ancient Russian one (the current village of Taman). As before, it was a major port through which goods went to Turkey, Western Europe, as well as to the North Caucasus to the Adyghe tribes. Matrega was well fortified. The population consisted mainly of Circassians, whose lands were adjacent to Matrega, Italians and Greeks. The Genoese sailed their ships up the Kuban River and 280 Italian miles from its mouth, at the beginning of the 14th century, on the lands of the Circassians, in the area of ​​the current city of Slavyansk-on-Kuban, they founded the colony of Lo-Kopu. According to the charter of the colony, the Genoese paid tribute to the Adyghe princes in the form of “gifts to the rulers” with bokasin (fine linen fabric), certain pieces of which replaced money. Circassians, Italians, Greeks, and Armenians lived in Kop. The population was mainly engaged in fishing, searing (salting) fish and preparing caviar, which was the main export item. Caviar was exported in barrels weighing five kantars (61.5 kg). Along with fish and caviar, slaves were an important export item. These were mainly Circassians (Adygs), Tatars and Russians. The Circassians and Circassian women were most highly valued. In addition, bread, lamb skins, furs, wax, honey, and fruits were exported.

According to the charter of the Genoese colonies, the consul at Lo Copa collected a duty from each ship for cargo and for anchorage. Persons involved in fish plating and caviar preparation were required to pay 10 asprs (a silver coin) as income to the consul, and a duty of 6 asprs was levied on each exported slave. The enrichment of the Genoese was also facilitated by barter trade with the Circassians, in which the Genoese bought leather and other raw materials at low prices, which gave unprecedented profits. The slave trade brought in particularly large profits. The following goods were imported to the Circassians through Kopa: salt, soap, fabrics (Italian cloth, thin linen fabric - bokasin, bukaran), carpets, saber blades with coats of arms, drawings and inscriptions. They were especially valued by the Adyghe nobility. Huge amounts of money were made by Genoese merchants who mercilessly exploited the local Adyghe population.

The position of the Genoese in Matrega was precarious - they were surrounded by Adyghe tribes, the ordinary population of which, as a rule, was hostile to them, political turmoil occurred in the colony itself due to the interference of the Genoese living in it in the internal affairs of other peoples and, finally, uprisings of local inhabitants against the rule of the Genoese. The Genoese settled in Matrega at the beginning of the 14th century, creating their own colony here. In 1419, Matrega went to the representative of the famous Genoese family Simon de Ghisolfi, thanks to the marriage of his son Vincenzo with the daughter and heiress of the Adyghe prince Berozokh. Thus, the Ghisolfi were in double dependence: on the one hand, and mainly, from the Kaf government, and on the other hand from the Adyghe princes.

After Simon Ghisolfi, Matrega was ruled by Zaccaria Ghisolfi, apparently the son of the Adyghe princess, whom Vincenzo Ghisolfi married. Zaccaria, as he himself believed, was a tributary and vassal of the then neighboring Adyghe prince Kadibeldi. In 1457, the latter, being the overlord of Zaccaria Ghisolfi, rebelled against him and captured the castle. The construction of a fortress (castle) in Matrega was carried out shortly before with the financial assistance of Kafa. The document says that “taking advantage of this (the capture of the Kadibeldi castle), the people of that area rebelled against Kafa and took possession of the said castle together with the princes of Zikhia.” Thus, this document testifies to the uprising of the Adyghe people against the Genoese and their princes. The uprising was suppressed by soldiers sent from Kafa, which obliged Zaccaria Ghisolfi to maintain mercenary soldiers from the Kafa garrison in the fortress. Weapons were sent to Matrega. Kafa at this time stood at the head of all the Genoese colonies in the North-West Caucasus.

On the Black Sea coast, the Genoese colonies were Mala, on the site of present-day Anapa, Kaloslimen (Baktiar) in Tsemes Bay (Novorossiysk). Here the Genoese managed to establish a profitable exchange with local tribes (Black Sea Circassians). Other Genoese colonies were small trading posts and anchorages for coastal shipping.

Genoese colonies existed in the North-West Caucasus until the end of the 15th century. After the capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453), Turkish military penetration into the Caucasus began. The Genoese colonies, with which the Adyghe tribes maintained fairly close trade relations, were destroyed, and Turkish fortresses arose in their place.

To some extent, this information about the advance of the Genoese from the Crimea and Kopa into the interior is confirmed by indirect data of a legendary folklore nature and even archeology. Thus, the French consul in Crimea Xaverio Glavani in 1724 in Circassia saw crosses on graves with Latin inscriptions, and in Karachay at the beginning of the 19th century. there was the Getmishbash cemetery, where many graves and tombstones were preserved, considered by the Karachais as Catholic or “Frankish”. F. Dubois de Montpere reports a legend recorded from General Engelhardt - the Franks or Genoese lived in all the valleys of the North Caucasus, “the dwellings of the Franks filled mainly the Kislovodsk valley, spreading even beyond the Kuban River.” With reference to P. S. Pallas, Dubois de Montpere points out that Rome Mountain near Kislovodsk served as a refuge for the Franks. The latter is quite possible. Let us also note that the popular name for Italians in the Caucasus as “Franks” comes from the Byzantine name for French mercenaries. Consequently, the term “Franks” denoting Europeans was borrowed by the Caucasians from the Byzantine Greeks.

Archaeological traces of the presence of the Genoese in the North Caucasus until the 15th century. varied, but not equally reliable. Among the latter, we include a Latin inscription on a crypt with a conical pyramidal roof, an entrance and a window in the upper reaches of the Majra River, which flows into the Kuban. The inscription read: “Fausta Fortuna” (“Fausta’s fortune”) and “I... CANTI” (name? - V.K.). But the reality of this inscription was later not confirmed by anyone. Another, also unverified, but really existing monument is a stone statue of a Catholic monk in a characteristic long robe and a shaved head with a tonsure. The right hand blesses. The monument was recorded two kilometers from the village of Pregradnaya in the eastern Trans-Kuban region, completely in accordance with the Genoese road about which M. N. Kamenev wrote. Perhaps, some imported items from the Belorechensky burial mounds of the 14th-15th centuries are directly related to the functioning of the mentioned road and the movement of goods along it: a silver gilded dish of Venetian work, Venetian glassware, a woman’s robe made of Italian lilac axamite velvet, etc. We are talking about the Kremukh property on the river, already mentioned in the first chapter. Belaya, headed by the ruler of Biberdi. There is no doubt about the trade exchange of the Adyghe Kremukh with the Italian colonies of the Black Sea region. To the same group of archaeological realities of the 14th century. Western European - Catholic circle can be attributed to bronze cross-vests with the image of the Crucifixion from the finds of M. N. Lozhkin at the Ilyichevsky settlement in the upper reaches of the river. Urup and Khumara in Kuban. Venetian glass, highly valued on the international market, ended up in burial grounds in the 14th-15th centuries. Western Ossetia - Digoria (for example, in Makhchesk), and this indicates the penetration of Italian goods to North Ossetia.

It is very likely that not all Italian imports of the 14th-15th centuries. We can now correctly identify and attribute from North Caucasian archaeological materials: for this it is necessary to know the original material culture, which is impossible in our conditions. This work remains for the future, like the work on Italian written sources relating to the Caucasus in Italian repositories.

The pre-war article by E. S. Zevakin and N. A. Penchko “Essays on the history of the Genoese colonies in the Western Caucasus in the 13th-14th centuries” remains a significant work on the problem that interests us, although on a number of subjects it is outdated and does not correspond to the current state of the sources . Zevakin and Penchko provide some facts that clearly document the expansion of Venice and Genoa in the North Caucasus. Thus, the authors established that in the territory between Tana (Azov) and Sevastopolis (Sukhum) there were 39 Italian colonies, settlements and sites, of which the most important were Tana, Sevastopolis, Kopa and Matrega, through which slaves, grain, wax and other goods. The very interesting information of De la Primode is confirmed that the Genoese walked up the Kuban and mined silver ore in the Caucasus mountains. There is a silver-lead deposit in the upper reaches of the Kuban; its development in Karachay was carried out until the 20th century. Therefore, the data about the mining operations of the Genoese in this area sounds reliable. I do not exclude that thanks to the presence of the Genoese, the Sentinsky Temple received its name, the etymology of which may go back to the Latin “Santa” - “holy”, “holy”. Since the Sentinsky temple is dedicated to the Mother of God and the Genoese probably knew this, in their mouths the temple and the peak itself with the temple could receive the popular name “Santa Maria”.

At the same time, I do not insist on the proposed version, because there is a Karachay version of the etymology of “Senta”. The decisive word here should belong to linguists.

E. S. Zevakin and N. A. Penchko testify to an ancient trade route that went along the valleys of the Kuban and Teberda to the Klukhorsky pass and further to Sevastopols; “The road through Rion to Imereti and Georgia, which was often visited by Genoese merchants, ended here.” It is clear that this route was important for relations with the north of the Caucasus, and it is no coincidence that already around 1330 there was a bishop in Sevastopolis, and from 1354 - a Genoese consul. As for Georgia, its rapprochement with the Catholic sovereigns and the Church of the West began in connection with the fight against. In the XIII-XIV centuries. part of the Georgian and Armenian population converted to Catholicism, and Pope Gregory IX in January 1240 sent eight missionaries with a letter to the Georgian Queen Rusudan and her son David V. As we see, Catholic expansion was carried out on a broad front, covering the entire Caucasus. In the south of the Caucasus Range, the Genoese also organized mining operations. There is information that in Abkhazia, in the gorge of the river. Gumista was a Genoese colony engaged in the development of lead-silver ore, and the number of mines reached 15. Not only was the introduction of trade into the depths of the Caucasus, but also the development of natural resources. All this meant the simultaneous settlement of Italians throughout the Caucasus.

How far the advance of very active and dynamic Europeans to the east of the Caucasus went is attested by Fanucci, to whom E. S. Zevakin and N. A. Penchko refer: “On Fanucci’s instructions, the Genoese built and settled the settlement of Kubachi in Dagestan.” We agree that this may seem like a fantasy - an Italian settlement in the wilds of the Dagestan mountains! This is true, if only because Kubachi has been known since the 9th century. Arab chroniclers called Zirikhgeran, i.e. “chain guards”, metal craftsmen, and this was long before the appearance of the Italians in the Caucasus. Fanucci's statement should be considered an exaggeration; the Genoese did not build Kubachi, but they could visit it more than once - the products of the famous Kubachi metal craftsmen, especially gunsmiths, should have attracted the attention of European merchants. This becomes more likely against the background of other evidence of the presence of Italians in Dagestan.

It is important that the fact of the advance of the Genoese, and with them the Catholic missionaries, to the Caspian Sea and northern Dagestan (to Derbent) is beyond doubt. Josaphat Barbaro reliably tells about the state of the Christian religion in this region of the Caucasus, which at that time was called Kaitaki: “the brothers of St. Francis (Franciscan monks - V.K.) and a certain priest of ours, a Latinist, went there. The peoples who live in these places are called Kaytaki, as stated above, they speak a language unlike others, many of them are Christians, some of whom believe in Greek, some in Armenian, and others in Catholicism.”

The cited source is the only one indicating that Orthodoxy has reached the borders of Dagestan (“some believe in Greek”), because, as we see, there are no archaeological monuments of Orthodoxy here yet.

The last evidence of the arrival of the Dominican Catholic missionary Vincenzo in Dagestan dates back to 1486. ​​After this, Christianity in Dagestan quickly lost its position to Islam. Dagestan is finally becoming a Muslim country.

Researchers have already tried to find answers to these questions. M.K. Starokadomskaya believed that the Italians did not go further than Solkhat in Crimea to the east in search of goods (and one of the main ones were slaves). The Genoese preferred to trade those goods that were delivered to Caffa or Solkhat by merchants of other nationalities. Apparently, Italian merchants personally participated in distant trade expeditions to eastern countries. What mattered was that at the beginning of the 14th century. a Genoese consulate functioned in Tabriz (Iran), and in the 20s of the 14th century. There was already a Genoese settlement in Zaiton. It should also be noted here that in the connections between the Genoese cities of Crimea and the countries of the East, “the most significant role was played by Caucasian merchants.” Consequently, the movement was mutual, and the Genoese were constantly moving through the Ciscaucasia to the east.

Very important information on the issue that interests us is contained in the appeal of Pope John XXII to Khan Uzbek in 1330. The Pope recommends to the khan Bishop Thomas Mancazol of Semiskat, who made many proselytes among the Alans of the Caucasus, Hungarians and Malkhaites. Semiskata was identified with Shemakha, which seems doubtful, at least unproven. Even more doubtful is the conclusion that the mysterious Semiskata is Samarkand. Based on this localization of Semiskata, a map of the missionary actions of Thomas Mancazola was compiled; the Alans on it did not fall into Mancazola’s zone of action, although they were located between the Lower Volga and the Don.

Stavropol archaeologist T. M. Minaeva testified that among the ruins of the city, metal crosses and stone tombstones with images of crosses were found, but they remained unpublished. Therefore, Christian antiquities of the XIV-XV centuries. from Majar remain anonymous, although the fact of the presence of Christians in this large city is beyond doubt.

Let us return to the localization of the city or station of Mihaja, passing through the Boniface IX bull. The options for the location of this point were noted above, and the last of them is the village. Mekegi in Dagestan. However, it is possible to offer another option: Mikhakha was located in the Kumie region, somewhat south of Madzhar. On the map of the Caucasus by Georg Traitel in 1774, “verwustete Stadt Chacha” is placed in this place - the devastated city of Hacha, which phonetically and chronologically most corresponds to the desired city of Michacha. Archaeologically this point has not yet been identified or explored. But the proposed option allows us to connect the well-known Roman Curia Mihaha with the process of introducing the Alans to Catholic Christianity in the 14th century. missionaries of Thomas Mancasola. Thanks to this, probably, the repeated (after the Byzantine-Orthodox) conversion of the Alans to Christianity in 1404, the Archbishop of Sultania in Iran, the Dominican John de Galonifontibus, among the Christian peoples of the “Great Tartary”, calls Alans and Yasses, i.e. Asov-Ossetians.

We have at our disposal some archaeological data that allows us to see this problem from a different angle and to match the general historical background of the events of the second half of the 13th – early 15th centuries drawn above. with concrete realities. In what will be stated below, not everything is an indisputable truth. But the reconstructions and interpretations we propose seem quite acceptable and worthy of attention, albeit ambiguous.

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