The textbook outlines the theoretical foundations, features of motivation and incentives at various stages of the life cycle of an organization. The process of formation, classification of motives and factors influencing the motivation of work, the mechanism of formation of the motivational core of the organization's personnel are considered. Covered: classification of incentives, directions for stimulating work activity; material monetary and non-monetary incentives; organization and regulation of remuneration, including additional and incentive pay, and much more. The essence and technology of the process of formation and management of the system of motivation and stimulation of labor activity are revealed.
The textbook is intended for students of economic universities, as well as for graduate students, doctoral students, teachers, students of additional professional education, and can also be useful to heads of organizations and employees of personnel management services.

The subject of study of the discipline “Motivation and stimulation of work activity” is the organizational, economic and socio-psychological nature of motives and incentives, motivation and stimulation, their relationship, interaction and interdependence in the process of work activity; a system of incentives and motives that constitute, on the one hand, the motivational core of an individual and, on the other, the motivational core of the organization’s personnel as a whole; mechanisms of motivation and stimulation of work activity, setting in motion both material monetary and non-monetary, as well as intangible motives and incentives; technology for forming a system of motivation and stimulation of work activity and organizing effective management of this system.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE 3
Chapter 1 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY 7
1.1. EVOLUTION OF VIEWS ON MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF THEORIES OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT 7
1.2. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY 14
1.2.1. Schools of the theory of motivation and stimulation of human life 14
1.2.2. Theories of motivation and stimulation of work activity 16
1.3. CONCEPTS OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY 30
1.4 PHYSIOLOGICAL, PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL COMPONENTS OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY 43
1.4.1. Physiological component of motivation and stimulation 43
1.4.2. Psychological component of motivation and stimulation 45
1.4.3. Sociological component of motivation and stimulation 52
1.5. BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY 61
1.5.1. Basic terms and essence of work motivation 61
1.5.2. Basic terms and essence of labor activity stimulation 70
1.6. RELATIONSHIP AND INTERACTION OF THE CONCEPTS “STIMULUS1. “STIMULATION”, “MOTIVE”, “MOTIVATION” IN THE PROCESS OF LABOR ACTIVITY OF THE ORGANIZATION’S PERSONNEL 73
1.7. THE PLACE AND ROLE OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY IN THE PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF AN ORGANIZATION 7B
1.7.1. Historical excursion, the place of motivation and incentives in the 7B personnel management system
1.7.2. Distinctive features of motivation and incentive systems for domestic organizations 81
1.8. FEATURES OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF THE ORGANIZATION LIFE CYCLE 84
1.8.1. Stages of the organization's life cycle and objectives of personnel policy B4
1.8.2. The influence of the stage of the organization’s life cycle on the system of motivation and incentives 91
Test questions and practice tasks 97
Chapter 2 MOTIVATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY 100
2.1. FORMATION PROCESS, FUNCTIONS AND CLASSIFICATION OF MOTIVES FOR WORK 100
2.2. MATERIAL AND SPIRITUAL NEEDS IN THE MOTIVATIONAL PROCESS 106
2.3. STRUCTURE AND COMPONENTS OF WORK MOTIVATION 113
2.3.1. Types of motivation structure 113
2.3.2. Components, methods and goals of motivation 116
2.4. FACTORS AFFECTING WORK MOTIVATION 119
2.5. MECHANISMS OF WORK MOTIVATION 131
2.5.1. Intrapersonal mechanisms of formation and functioning of work motivation 131
2.5.2. Methods for analyzing mechanisms of motivation for work 136
2.6. (NORMATING THE MOTIVATIONAL CORE OF THE ORGANIZATION’S PERSONNEL 146
2.6.1. The essence and characteristics of the motivational core of the organization’s personnel 146
2.6.2. Factors influencing the formation of the motivational core of the organization’s personnel 152
2.6.3. Management of the motivational core of the organization's personnel 155
2.6.4. The effectiveness of the motivational core of the organization’s personnel 157
2.7. MOTIVES FOR STAFF PARTICIPATION IN THE ACTIVITIES OF THE ORGANIZATION 159
2.7.1. The motive of participation and models of corporate governance 159
2.7.2. Motive for participation in the organization's profits 165
2.7.3. Motive for participation in the property of an organization 172
2.7.4. The motive for participation in the management of an organization 177
2.7.5. Motive for participation in the organization’s profits and losses 180
Test questions and practice tasks 182
Chapter 3 STIMULATING LABOR ACTIVITY 184
3.1. CLASSIFICATION OF INCENTIVES AND DIRECTIONS FOR STIMULATING LABOR ACTIVITY 1B4
3.2. MATERIAL MONETARY AND NON-MONETARY INCENTIVES OF LABOR ACTIVITY 168
3.2.1. The essence of material monetary incentives for work 188
3.2.2. Essence, economic content and functions of wages 194
3.2.3. Factors affecting wages 205
3.2.4. The essence of material non-monetary incentives for work 210
3.3. ORGANIZATION OF REMUNERATION 19
3.3.1. The essence, principles and elements of the organization of remuneration 219
3.3.2. Labor rationing 222
3.3.3. Terms of remuneration 225
3.3.4. Forms and systems of remuneration 238
3.4. ADDITIONAL AND INCENTIVE RAY 246
3.4.1. The essence of surcharges and allowances 246
3.4.2. The procedure for providing additional payments and allowances 249
3.4.3. Organization of bonuses 251
3.5. WAGE REGULATION 259
3.5.1. System of collective bargaining regulation of wages 259
3.5.2. State regulation of wages 269
3.5.3. Regulation of wages taking into account supply and demand in the labor market 282
3.6. NON-MATERIAL INCENTIVES OF LABOR ACTIVITY 287
3.6.1. The essence and main directions of non-material incentives 2B7
3.6.2. Moral stimulation 290
3.6.3. Organizational incentives 300
3.6.4. Stimulation with free time 309
Test questions and practice tasks 316
Chapter 4 FORMATION OF A SYSTEM OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY 319
4.1. ESSENCE AND BASIC ELEMENTS OF THE SYSTEM OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY 319
4.2. TECHNOLOGY FOR DIAGNOSTICS OF THE SYSTEM OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF STAFF EXISTING IN THE ORGANIZATION 333
4.3. TECHNOLOGY FOR FORMING GOALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATIONAL POLICY IN THE FIELD OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF STAFF WORK 343
4.4. TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT OF A SYSTEM OF MATERIAL MONETARY INCENTIVES (WAGES) 346
4.4.1. Categorization of organization personnel 346
4.4.2. Description, analysis, assessment and classification of jobs [positions] 347
4.4.3. Grading of jobs (positions) 354
4.4.4. Establishment of a constant part of remuneration (basic salaries), allowances and additional payments 356
4.4.5. Development of the variable part of the wage system 361
4.5. TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPING MATERIAL NON-MONETARY INCENTIVES OF STAFF (SOCIAL PACKAGE) E6V
4.6. TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPING A SYSTEM OF NON-MATERIAL INCENTIVES OF STAFF 375
4.6.1. Methods for analyzing the need for non-material incentives for employees 375
4.6.2. Formation of a system of non-material incentives 379
4.7. TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNAL REGULATIVE DOCUMENTS REGULATING THE SYSTEM OF MOTIVATION AND INCENTIVENESS OF STAFF 384
4.8. MANAGEMENT OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY 392
4.8.1. Methodological and methodological foundations for managing motivation and stimulation of work activity 392
4.8.2. Organization of management of motivation and stimulation of work activity 399
Test questions and practice tasks 409
REFERENCES 412
APPLICATIONS
EXAMPLES OF INTERNAL REGULATORY DOCUMENTS. REGULATING THE SYSTEM OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF THE ORGANIZATION 415
Appendix 1. Regulations on the personnel of the organization 416
Appendix 2. Regulations on the organization’s personnel management service 422
Appendix 3. Social Code of OAO LUKOIL 424
Appendix 4. Internal labor regulations for employees of the organization 441
Appendix 5. Rules of business conduct for the organization’s personnel (code of business ethics] 460
Appendix 6. Diagnostics and formation of a motivation and incentive system for the Raduga company 462
Appendix 7. Regulations on the policy of motivation and stimulation of one of the Moscow organizations 474
Appendix 8. Regulations on remuneration of personnel of CJSC Polyus 483
Appendix 8. Regulations on remuneration of employees of JSC f Russian company" 480
Appendix 10. Organization of a system of motivation and stimulation of work activity at Union Vinyl 487
Appendix 11. Questionnaire “Organizational personnel and labor management” - 508

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1. Aleksina S.B. Stimulation methods: Textbook. – M.: FORUM, 2013. – 304 p.
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21. Tinkova E.V. Material incentives as a factor in the development of business entities / E.V. Tinkova // News of the South-Western State University. 2017. No. 2 (71). pp. 159-163.
22. Tolstikov E.V. Development of a system of material incentives for personnel / E.V. Tolstikov // Fundamental and applied research in the modern world. – 2015. – No. 12-4. – pp. 166-169.
23. Shapiro S.A. Personnel diagnostics in a cyclical motivational concept / S.A. Shapiro // Motivation and remuneration. - 2016 .- No. 1 .- P. 46-61.
24. Shubina N.A. Material and non-material stimulation of labor: organizational experience and public opinion / N.A. Shubina // Scientific community of students of the XXI century. Economic sciences: collection. Art. according to mat. XXIII int. stud. scientific-practical conf. No. 8(23)., 2015. - P. 87-991

Today, staff motivation occupies a central place in the organization’s personnel management system, since it is essentially the reason for employee behavior. How motivated employees are depends on their orientation towards the organization’s goals, desire to achieve them, and ensure the necessary results. And this, in turn, is the basis for the effective operation of the organization as a whole.

The results achieved by people in the process of work depend not only on the knowledge, skills and abilities of these people. In order for all the tasks set for the organization to be achieved, it is not enough just to recruit qualified personnel and develop an effective structure for their interaction. Productive activity is possible only if workers have appropriate motivation, that is, the desire to work.

In connection with the growing understanding of the need to take into account the psychological characteristics of a person for the effective operation of organizations, the basis of modern management is the study of not only managerial, but also psychological aspects of the work motivation of personnel. Within the framework of psychology, work motivation is a set of motivating forces inherent in a person (needs, interests, intentions, motivations, etc.) associated with his work activity.

The textbook reflects the content of many lectures, but it does not pretend to be a complete presentation of the course, but is intended to help full-time students in independent preparation for seminar classes and tests.

BASIC CONCEPTS IN THE STRUCTURE OF MOTIVATION

Today, there are several approaches to defining the very concept of motivation and its components. So, H. Heckhausen defines motivation as a process of choosing between various possible actions, a process that regulates, directs action to achieve goal states specific to a given motive and supports this direction. F. Lutens says that motivation is a process that begins with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates behavior or creates an impulse aimed at achieving a specific goal or reward.

Some authors point out that it is necessary to consider the concept of motivation from two points of view: 1) motivation is a system of factors that cause the activity of the body and determine the direction of human behavior. This includes such entities as needs, motives, intentions, goals, interests, aspirations; 2) motivation is a characteristic of a process that ensures behavioral activity at a certain level.

The concept of labor motivation is separately distinguished and defined as the employee’s desire to satisfy his needs (receive certain benefits) through work. And they say that then the structure of the labor motive includes: the need that the employee wants to satisfy; a good that can satisfy this need; labor action necessary to obtain a benefit; price – costs of a material and moral nature associated with the implementation of a labor action.

Thus, if we analyze the definitions of motivation from different authors, we can identify several concepts that are key in the motivation process: need, motive, incentive.

Need- This is a state of need for something. They activate the body, direct it to search for what the body currently needs.

The real forms of manifestation of needs that are correlated with the environment are claims and expectations. Claims represent a habitual level of satisfaction of needs that determines human behavior. Based on the same need, different claims and expectations can be formed. So, for one person, the primary nutritional need can be satisfied with the help of cheap sandwiches, while for another, its normal satisfaction involves a gourmet lunch in an expensive restaurant. Expectations specify claims in relation to the real situation and certain behavior. Based on approximately the same claims, expectations, however, can differ significantly

Motive– it is what causes certain human actions.

The process of activating a person's motives is called motivation.

Motive not only motivates a person to action, but also determines what needs to be done and how this action will be carried out. There may be one need, but different people may have different actions to satisfy it.

Thus, the initial link in the motivation mechanism is need.

Incentives act as levers of influence that cause the action of certain motives. Stimulation - awakening, intensifying, or quickening thoughts, feelings, and actions.

A rather important point is the distinction between the concepts motive and incentive. Motive characterizes a person’s desire to receive certain benefits.

The incentive is the benefits themselves. A stimulus may not develop into a motive if it requires impossible actions from a person. For example, offering a team of construction workers a large sum of money to build a complex bridge over a river will not motivate them to act if they do not have the necessary qualifications for this and if they do not have the equipment or anything else that is required for construction. Thus, the stimulus is directly focused on the need, its satisfaction, while the motive is the main connecting link that, under certain conditions, connects the stimulus and needs. For this connection to occur, it is necessary that the stimulus be more or less conscious and accepted by the employee.

Thus, with all the importance of incentives and stimulation from a psychological point of view, it is the motive, and not the stimulus itself, that motivates and directs human activity. Stimulus, stimulation, stimulation is something external to a person.

Stimulation is fundamentally different from motivation. The difference is that stimulation acts as a means by which motivation can be achieved.

Motivation as a process

Motivation as a process can be represented as a series of successive stages

First stage– emergence of needs. A person feels that he is missing something. He decides to take some action.

Second phase- searching for ways to provide a need that can be satisfied, suppressed, or simply not noticed.

Third stage– determination of goals (directions) of action. It is determined what exactly needs to be done and by what means. Here it is revealed what needs to be obtained to satisfy the need.

Fourth stage– implementation of the action. A person expends effort to carry out actions that open up the possibility of acquiring what is necessary to satisfy a need.

Fifth stage – receiving a reward for implementing an action. Here it is revealed to what extent the implementation of actions provided the desired result. Depending on this, the motivation for action changes.

Sixth stage– satisfaction of needs. A person either stops activity before a new need arises, or continues to look for opportunities and take actions to satisfy the need.

Theories of motivation

A systematic study of motivation from a psychological point of view does not allow us to determine exactly what motivates a person to work. However, research into human behavior at work provides some general explanations of motivation and allows for the creation of pragmatic models of employee motivation in the workplace.

The theory of motivation reached psychological maturity in the 40s. Now their western branch is divided into two groups: substantive and procedural. Content theories of motivation are based on identifying needs. The task of substantive theories is to establish the needs of employees and determine how and in what proportions to apply internal and external rewards. The task of process theories is to establish the probability of the expected result with the motivating role of needs and various possible degrees of satisfaction; they are based primarily on how people behave, taking into account their perception and cognition, how people distribute efforts to achieve goals. Process theories of motivation analyze how a person distributes effort to achieve various goals and how he chooses a specific type of behavior. Process theories believe that people's behavior is determined not only by needs. There are three main procedural theories of motivation: V. Vroom's theory of expectations, S. Adams' theory of justice, and the Porter-Lawler model.

It is important to understand that although these theories differ on a number of issues, they are not mutually exclusive.

A. Maslow's theory of needs

A. Maslow proceeds from the fact that all people constantly feel some needs that prompt them to action. He formulated three fundamental assumptions about human nature that form the basis of his theory.

1. Humans are needy beings whose needs can never be satisfied.
2. A state of partial or complete dissatisfaction of needs prompts a person to action (according to A. Maslow, “the best way to encourage someone to seek love is to deny him it”).
3. There is a hierarchy of needs in which lower level basic needs are at the bottom and higher level needs are at the very top.

Usually a person experiences several interacting needs at once, the strongest of which determines his behavior.

A. Maslow identifies 5 main groups of human needs.

1. 1. Physiological needs

These include the needs for food, sleep, clothing, shelter, and sex. Their satisfaction is vital. In relation to production, they manifest themselves as needs for wages, vacation, pensions, and favorable working conditions. Workers whose behavior is determined by these needs have little interest in the meaning and content of work.

1. 2. Security needs

By this we mean both physical (health protection, safe workplace) and economic security (cash income, social insurance). These needs are actualized only when physiological needs are satisfied. Satisfying security needs provides confidence in the future. They reflect the desire to maintain the position already achieved, including the level of salary and various benefits.

1. 3. Social needs

They are focused on communication and emotional connections with others: friendship, love, acceptance, belonging to a group. In an organization, this manifests itself in the fact that people belong to formal and informal groups and collaborate in one way or another with work colleagues. A person motivated by social needs considers his work as a part of the activity of the entire team.

4. Esteem needs

These include both the needs for self-esteem and respect from others, including the needs for prestige, authority, power, and career. Self-esteem is usually formed when achieving a goal and is associated with the presence of autonomy and independence. The need for respect from others orients a person toward winning and receiving public recognition, reputation, status within a group, the external manifestations of which can be expressions of recognition, praise, and honorary titles.

5. Needs for self-realization

They include the need for creativity, the implementation of one’s own plans, and the realization of individual abilities. By their nature, the needs for self-realization are more individual than others.

Plus, A. Maslow divided the needs in his hierarchy into two large categories. Deficit needs cover needs at lower levels. The needs for growth and development are the needs for respect and self-realization. It should be noted that deficit needs are satisfied due to factors that are somehow external to the personality, and these include, for example, food, a healthy environment, friends and loved ones, while growth needs are inherent to the personality and its internal characteristics.

The following are possible ways to meet the growth and development needs of an organization.

Methods to meet the needs of growth and development.

Need for respect:

• constant increase in the content of employees’ work;
• effective feedback on work results and the manager’s reaction;
• high appreciation and encouragement of achieved results;
• involving subordinates in formulating goals and developing solutions;
• delegation of sufficient rights and powers to subordinates;
• promotion of subordinates up the career ladder;
• providing or supporting training and retraining of subordinates that improves their level of competence.
• providing the opportunity to realize personal and professional potential;
• assigning complex and important tasks to subordinates that require full dedication;
• encouraging and developing the creative abilities of subordinates.

Need for self-expression:

when using the model, it is necessary to carefully observe employees and try to determine their active needs; develop a motivation system in accordance with changing needs; to create situations in which an employee satisfies his needs for the benefit of the organization’s goals, the main task is to determine the psychological portrait of an employee who has one activated need and place him in a position where it will be satisfied for the benefit of the organization.

1. In order for a higher level of needs to begin to influence a person’s behavior, it is not necessary to fully satisfy the needs of the lower level, because Human behavior is stimulated by more than one active need.
2. The mechanism of transition of needs from one level to another is not revealed (where is the limit of saturation?).
   1. The process of reproduction of needs over time is not clear.
   2. The mechanism for identifying active (current) needs is complex.

K. Alderfer's theory of needs.

A. Maslow’s theory was further developed in the works of K. Alderfer. He made an attempt to clarify and creatively develop the theory of A. Maslow. He identified three levels of needs, which essentially coincide with the five levels of needs according to A. Maslow (see Table 1).

Table 1

Classifications of needs

In contrast to A. Maslow, who assumed the motivating influence of needs only when moving from bottom to top, i.e. when moving from lower to higher, K. Alderfer argues that such influence can go in both directions; needs of different levels can influence human behavior simultaneously

K. Alderfer tried to establish a connection between the satisfaction of needs and their activation and, as a result, identified 7 dependencies.

1. The less satisfied the needs in existence, the stronger they manifest themselves.
2. The weaker the social needs are satisfied, the stronger the effect of the needs in existence.
3. The more fully the needs for existence are satisfied, the more actively social needs manifest themselves.
4. The less satisfied social needs are, the more their effect intensifies.
5. The less the growth needs are satisfied, the stronger the social needs become.
6. The more fully the social needs are satisfied, the more the needs of personal growth are actualized.
7. The more or less the growth needs are satisfied, the more actively they manifest themselves.

D. McClelland's theory of motivational needs.

In his theory, D. McClelland tried to identify the most important among the “secondary needs”, which are analyzed subject to sufficient material security. He argues that any organization gives the employee the opportunity to realize three higher-level needs: in power, success and belonging. On their basis, a fourth need arises: to avoid troubles, that is, obstacles in the realization of the three named needs.

All employees have needs for power, success and belonging. However, in different people these needs are expressed differently or exist in certain combinations. How they combine depends on the person's natural qualities, personal experience, situation and culture.

The need for success is not expressed equally among all employees. A success-oriented person typically desires autonomy and is willing to take responsibility for the results of their work. He wants to know about the specific results of his work, strives to set realistically achievable goals, avoids unreasonable risks, and enjoys the process of work itself, especially its successful completion.

The need for success is subject to development, which can be used for work efficiency.

The need for power is expressed in the desire to influence other people, control their behavior, as well as the willingness to be responsible for others. This need is expressed in the desire for a leadership position. It has a positive impact on leadership effectiveness. Such people have high self-control, they are dedicated to their organization and are passionate about the work.

The need to belong is manifested in the desire to communicate and have friendships. Employees with a strong need to belong perform well primarily in tasks that require high levels of social interaction and good interpersonal relationships.

Based on his research, D. McClelland identified 3 types of managers.

1. Institutional managers with a high level of self-control. They are characterized by a greater need for power than for group affiliation.
2. Managers whose need for power prevails over the need for belonging, but in general these people are more open and socially active.
3. Managers whose need for belonging prevails over the need for power are also open and socially active.

D. McClelland's main conclusion is that a combination of all three types of managers can be beneficial for an organization.

Methodology for using the model in practice: People with a need for power should be trained for leadership positions and should not be appointed to positions below average rank; set complex tasks and delegate enough authority to solve them to people with a need for success, guarantee them specific rewards based on the results of their work; create and maintain informal communications for and through people with a strong need for affiliation, since they show the greatest loyalty to the company.

1. The model does not show the mechanism for satisfying lower-level needs, which, as practice shows, are no less active than higher ones.
2. There is no clarity regarding methods for identifying active needs. The question arises about the adequacy of using the projective methodology proposed by McClelland to determine the characteristics of the motivational sphere of the individual.
3. The classification of individual needs is quite simplified.

The theory of two factors by F. Herzberg.

This theory has been described by many authors. It was created by F. Herzberg based on interview data taken in different workplaces, in different professional groups and in different countries. Interviewees were asked to describe situations in which they felt complete satisfaction or, conversely, dissatisfaction with their work.

The answers were classified into groups. Studying the collected material, F. Herzberg came to the conclusion that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are caused by various factors.

Job satisfaction is influenced by:

● achievements (qualifications) and recognition of success;

● work as such (interest in work and task);

● responsibility;

● promotion;

● opportunity for professional growth.

He called these factors “motivators.”

Job dissatisfaction is influenced by:

● control method;

● organizational policy and administration;

● working conditions;

● interpersonal relationships in the workplace;

● earnings;

● uncertainty about job stability;

● the impact of work on personal life.

These external factors are called “context factors” or “hygiene” factors.

Motivators that cause job satisfaction were associated with the content of the job and were caused by the individual’s internal needs for self-expression. Factors causing job dissatisfaction were associated with job disadvantages and external conditions. These factors can easily be associated with unpleasant sensations that must be avoided.

If hygiene factors create a bad situation, then workers will experience dissatisfaction, but even at best, these factors do not lead to great job satisfaction, but rather a neutral attitude. Hygiene factors in themselves do not cause satisfaction, but their deterioration gives rise to job dissatisfaction.

Job satisfaction is caused only by motivational factors, the positive development of which can increase motivation and satisfaction from a neutral state to a “plus”.

In order to prevent dissatisfaction with work, the presence of hygiene factors is sufficient, while increasing labor productivity is achieved with the help of motivators.

F. Herzberg made the following conclusions:

1. lack of hygiene factors leads to job dissatisfaction;
2. the presence of motivators can only partially compensate for the lack of hygiene factors;
3. under normal conditions, the presence of hygiene factors is perceived as natural and does not have a motivational effect;
4. maximum positive emotional impact is achieved with the help of motivators and in the presence of hygiene factors.

The main practical conclusion is that managers should take a differentiated and very careful approach to the use of various incentives and, when the needs of lower levels are satisfied, not rely on hygiene factors as the main ones. Conversely, time and money should not be wasted on using motivators until the hygiene needs of employees are met.

it is necessary to ensure the presence in the organization of two groups of factors simultaneously; compile a list of factors for employees to independently determine preferences; motivate their work in accordance with the data received.

1. employees should regularly learn about the positive and negative results of their work;
2. it is necessary to create conditions for employees to grow their own self-esteem and respect;
3. employees should be given the opportunity to set their own work schedule;
4. employees must bear certain financial responsibility;
5. employees must report for work in the area entrusted to them.

Disadvantages of the theoretical model.

1. The premise “satisfaction leads to action” is hypothetical and has not been proven experimentally. The correlation between satisfaction and labor productivity has not been proven.
2. No objective methods have been proposed for analyzing the presence and severity of two groups of factors in an organization.

Process theories of motivation.

V. Vroom's theory of expectations.

It is based on the proposition that the presence of an active need is not the only and necessary condition for motivating a person to achieve a given goal. A person is always, one way or another, motivated and makes a choice between alternative forms of behavior. A person must also hope that the type of behavior he chooses will lead to satisfaction or the acquisition of what he wants.

The choice of one or another form of behavior depends on three variables: valency- IN, instrumentality- And and expectations- ABOUT.

Valence is a measure of attractiveness, goal value, reward, it varies from –1 to +1.

Instrumentality is the employee’s estimated probability of achieving the goal. It also ranges from -1, the action does not lead to achieving the goal, to +1, the action ends in achieving the goal.

Expectation - this is the subjective probability that the action (D) leads to the achievement of an intermediate result (P1). It is measured from 0 to 1.

V. Vroom's model of expectations can be represented in the form of a diagram reflected by three formulas.

1. Valence P1 = Instrumentality (P1 – P2) * Valence P2

This formula means that the attractiveness of the intermediate result P1 is equal to the probability that result 1 will lead to result 2, multiplied by the attractiveness of result 2 (P2), i.e., to the final goal.

1. Effort (U) = Expectation (D1 – P1)* Instrumentality (P1 – P2) * Valence P2

According to this formula, work effort equals the product of the expectation that action 1 will lead to outcome 1 multiplied by the attractiveness of outcome 1.

1. Effort (U) = Expectancy (D1 – P1) * Instrumentality (P1 – P2) * Valence P2

This formula should be read starting from the end. Labor effort and the willingness to apply it are determined by the attractiveness of the final goal and its feasibility, that is, a subjective assessment of the likelihood of implementation. More specifically, this means: the employee strives to achieve the final goal, so at the beginning he evaluates its attractiveness (valence), then evaluates how much the means at his disposal (P1) allow him to achieve the final goal (instrumentality of P1 for P2). After this, the employee also evaluates the probability that his action will achieve result 1 (the expectation that D1 will lead to P1), and finally, he gives an overall assessment of how likely his possible action is to lead him to the goal. This assessment directly determines the strength of his motivation, that is, the degree of willingness of the employee to put in his labor efforts to achieve the goal.

Methodology for applying the model in practice: compare the proposed remuneration with the needs of employees and bring them into line; establish a firm relationship between labor results and remuneration; create a high but realistic level of results expected from employees.

V. Vroom's theory is based on mathematical justification and empirical research. Despite its considerable complexity, it has both theoretical (expands the understanding of the mechanism of motivation) and practical significance. In particular, it provides a number of practical recommendations that must be taken into account when working with personnel:

1. An employee will be more productive when he perceives a high probability that his personal efforts will lead to high overall work achievements. If people feel that there is no direct relationship between the effort expended and the results obtained, then, according to expectancy theory, motivation will weaken (Effort - Result).

1. If a person is confident that the results achieved will be rewarded, but with a reasonable amount of effort he cannot achieve these results, then motivation in this case will be weak.
2. If a person does not feel a clear connection between the results achieved and the desired encouragement or reward, the motivation to work will weaken (Result – Reward).
3. If the value of the reward received for a person is not too great, then expectancy theory predicts that the motivation to work will weaken in this case (Valence).

Disadvantages of the theoretical model:

1. The individual characteristics of people and organizations are not fully taken into account.
2. The methodological and conceptual foundations and the technical side of applying the model in management practice have not been sufficiently developed.
3. The difficulty of implementing a differentiated approach to personnel due to the high subjectivity of assessments and expectations.

S. Adams' theory of justice.

This theory postulates that people subjectively determine the ratio of reward received to effort expended and then relate it to the rewards of other people performing similar work. If the comparison shows imbalance and injustice, that is, a person believes that his colleague received more compensation for the same work, then he experiences psychological stress; if he believes that he received more than his colleague, then a feeling of guilt arises. As a result, it is necessary to motivate the employee, relieve tension and imbalance. Normal labor relations between employee and employer are established only when there is distributive justice:

reward = reward

employee A's contribution employee B's contribution

In an effort to get rid of an unpleasant psychological state, an employee can act as follows:

1. reduce or increase your labor contribution in the hope of achieving justice, “for such a small salary you can do nothing at all”;
2. change your income, for example, increase it by earning extra money on the side or by talking with your boss;
3. try to re-evaluate the cost-income ratio;
4. influence the employee selected as a comparison standard, for example, offer him to work better or worse;
5. choose another person for comparison and calm down if the ratio is not in his favor;
6. resign from the organization.

Thus, those employees who feel that they are underpaid compared to others may either begin to work less intensively or seek higher remuneration. Those same employees who believe they are overpaid will strive to maintain the intensity of work at the same level or even increase it.

Methodology for using the model in practice: The main implication of equity theory for management practice is that until they believe they are being fairly compensated, they will tend to reduce their work intensity. However, the perception and assessment of fairness are relative. People compare themselves with other employees in the same organization or with employees in other organizations doing similar work. Since the productivity of employees who perceive their compensation as unfair (due to the fact that someone else doing similar work is paid more) will decline, they need to be told and explained why this difference exists. It is necessary to explain to employees the dependence of remuneration on the results of work (its intensity, efficiency), and to explain the prospects for growth in terms of effort and reward. It should be explained, for example, that a higher-paid colleague gets paid more because he has more experience, which allows him to produce more. If the difference in remuneration is due to differences in performance, then it is necessary to explain to employees who are paid less that when their performance reaches the level of their colleagues, they will receive the same increased remuneration.

Some organizations are trying to solve the problem of employees feeling that their work is being unfairly assessed by keeping payment amounts secret. Not only is this difficult to do technically, but it also makes people suspect injustice where there is none. In addition, if employees' earnings are kept secret, the organization risks losing the positive motivational impact of salary increases associated with promotion.

One of the practical recommendations for managers arising from this theory and empirical research carried out on its basis concerns the impact of underpayment and overpayment on piecework and time-based forms of remuneration on motivation. This influence can be presented in the form of a table (see Table 2).

Disadvantages of the theoretical model.

1. Determining the fairness of remuneration is a subjective process on both the employee’s and management’s part.
2. The model relies more on meeting the needs of different levels with the help of material rewards.

Porter-Lawler model.

Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler developed a comprehensive process theory of motivation that organically combines the ideas of the theories of A. Maslow,

F. Herzberg, D. McClelland, and the ideas of the theory of expectations of V. Vroom and the theory of justice of S. Adams. The Porter–Lawler model can be represented schematically (see diagram 2)

The logic of this model is as follows:

(1) A person determines for himself the attractiveness and value of the reward expected for achieving a work goal, (2) assesses the likelihood of achieving the goal and receiving the reward. (3) This determines his labor effort, the desire to complete the work. (4) Goal achievement is influenced by the individual abilities of the employee, as well as (5) role requirements, i.e. their perception of their job responsibilities. (6) Achieving the goal, i.e. the result obtained entails internal rewards: pride, self-esteem (7a) and external rewards (7b). (8) Remuneration is assessed as fair or unfair. (9) Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, as well as the assessment of their fairness, determine job satisfaction, which in turn has an inverse effect on the assessment of the value of a new reward (indicated by the dotted line). In addition, the results achieved (6) influence the subsequent assessment of the likelihood of future rewards (2).

When analyzing this model, one can formulate several main conclusions.

1. The value of the expected reward is determined by both internal, arising from the work process itself, and external, in relation to the task, rewards.
2. The effectiveness of a task depends on the employee's assessment of the actions required to complete the task and his ability to carry them out, which emphasizes the need for a clear formulation of goals and a preliminary determination of the employee's suitability for the task assigned to him in order to best perform it and provide the employee with satisfaction from the solution process.
3. The feeling of fairness of the reward affects the degree of satisfaction from it.

Disadvantages of the theoretical model:

In practice, difficulties arise in understanding the psychological foundations of motivation and the correct selection of remuneration for an employee.

There are a large number of largely different approaches to work motivation: some focus on the needs underlying the motives for work, others on the factors that determine a particular need, and others describe the conditions and stages of the emergence of the motive. However, the similarity of these approaches lies in the general idea that a person’s work behavior is always stimulated by certain internal forces associated, first of all, with the awareness and acceptance of meaning (what the work is done for) and content (what is experienced by the employee as something important and essential, related to his needs) labor. These approaches together provide a more complete and comprehensive understanding of work motivation as a psychological phenomenon, and are also an important theoretical basis both for creating methods for diagnosing work motivation and for the practical development of management programs and stimulating the effectiveness of employees and managers.

Types of motivation

There are different ways to classify types of motivation.

. He highlights extrinsic intense(internal, associated with personal dispositions: needs, attitudes, interests, drives, desires, in which actions and deeds are performed “of the free will” of the subject).

Dodonov B.I. identifies types of motivation depending on person's orientation at work(see diagram 3):

ways to motivate and allocate direct indirect

Normative motivation

Forced motivation

Supporting factors:

• money;
• conditions;
• tools for work;
• safety;
• reliability.

Motivating factors:

• confession;
• height;
• achievements;
• responsibility and authority.

External situation;

Own capabilities;

Control method;

Organizational climate;

Culture, group norms;

The logic of this model is as follows:

(1) A person determines for himself the attractiveness, the value of the reward expected for achieving a work goal,(2) assesses the likelihood of achieving a goal and receiving a reward.(3) This determines his labor effort, the desire to complete the work.(4) Achieving the goal is influenced by the individual abilities of the employee, as well as(5) role requirements, i.e. their perception of their job responsibilities.(6) Achieving the goal, i.e. the result obtained entails internal rewards: pride, self-esteem(7a) and extrinsic rewards(7b) . (8) Remuneration is assessed as fair or unfair.(9) Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, as well as the assessment of their fairness, determine job satisfaction, which in turn has an inverse effect on the assessment of the value of a new reward (indicated by the dotted line). In addition, the results achieved(6) influence subsequent assessments of the likelihood of future rewards(2) .

When analyzing this model, one can formulateseveral main conclusions.

1. The value of the expected reward is determined by both internal, arising from the work process itself, and external, in relation to the task, rewards.

2. The effectiveness of a task depends on the employee's assessment of the actions required to complete the task and his ability to carry them out, which emphasizes the need for a clear formulation of goals and a preliminary determination of the employee's suitability for the task assigned to him in order to best perform it and provide the employee with satisfaction from the solution process.

3. The feeling of fairness of the reward affects the degree of satisfaction from it.

Disadvantages of the theoretical model:

In practice, difficulties arise in understanding the psychological foundations of motivation and the correct selection of remuneration for an employee.

General conclusion on theories of motivation: There are a large number of largely different approaches to work motivation: some focus on the needs underlying the motives for work, others on the factors that determine a particular need, and others describe the conditions and stages of the emergence of the motive. However, the similarity of these approaches lies in the general idea that a person’s work behavior is always stimulated by certain internal forces associated, first of all, with the awareness and acceptance of meaning (what the work is done for) and content (what is experienced by the employee as something important and essential, related to his needs) labor. These approaches together provide a more complete and comprehensive understanding of work motivation as a psychological phenomenon, and are also an important theoretical basis both for creating methods for diagnosing work motivation and for the practical development of management programs and stimulating the effectiveness of employees and managers.

Types of motivation

There are different ways to classify types of motivation.

So, Ilyin E.P. offers as a parameter for classification conditionality of the motivation process.It highlights extrinsic(due to external conditions and circumstances) and intense(internal, associated with personal dispositions: needs, attitudes, interests, drives, desires, in which actions and deeds are performed “of the free will” of the subject).

Dodonov B.I. identifies types of motivation depending on person's orientation at work(see diagram 3):

Ruchka A.A., and Sakada N.A. propose to classify motivation depending on ways to motivate and allocate direct(involves direct impact on humans) and indirect motivation (based on the influence of external factors).

Direct motivation includes: normative and compulsory.

Normative motivation represents a direct impact on the employee’s personality in order to change his value system and thereby form a desirable system of work motives. This influence is accomplished using such methods and means as persuasion, suggestion, infection, agitation, demonstration of example, and the like. If this method of management influence is successful, management goals are internalized by the object of management and become its own goals. Thus, the personal interest of personnel in the effective results of their own work, in the successful production activities of their team and enterprise, is formed and then manifested in business.

Forced motivation- this is a method based on the threat of deterioration in meeting certain needs of employees in the event of their failure to comply with the requirements of the subject of management. In practice, it is implemented with the help of orders, regulations, instructions, instructions, requirements, and negative sanctions.

In terms of operational management, forced motivation has a number of advantages. Firstly, it does not require depth of penetration into the subjective world of workers. To implement it, it is enough to use the basic, elementary needs that are essential for all people. Secondly, it is as efficient as possible. Thirdly, this method of influencing personnel does not require the expenditure of any real life benefits.

However, there are a number of shortcomings of a psychological and social nature inherent in this managerial method of forming work motives. Powerful motivation can cause in workers, in addition to the desire to eliminate the threat from the subject of management, progressive fear, fear of losing the achieved position in work. This can cause both constructive activity and conflicts, neuroses, violations of labor discipline, and staff turnover.

In general, this method of influence is focused on the strict subordination of employees to the subject of management, its goals and requirements, which is fraught with certain negative consequences: forced motivation can limit the opportunities for self-realization of employees, restrain their creativity, and do not contribute to the development of innovative activity of subordinates. All this indicates that forced motivation in itself is not the optimal managerial way of creating desirable work motives.

Stimulation is the influence on external circumstances with the help of benefits - incentives that encourage a person to behave in a certain way. A distinctive feature of stimulation in comparison with methods and means of direct motivation is that with it, a person’s behavior is regulated by influencing not the individual himself, but the conditions of his life, the circumstances external to the individual that give rise to his interests and needs. This creates a situation of personal choice, which employees implement in accordance with their own preferences. In order to influence this system of preferences in the direction desired for management purposes, the subject of management strives to change external circumstances in relation to the object of management. For this purpose, incentives are used such as material and monetary (salary, bonuses, additional payments, allowances), material and non-monetary incentives (production and technical, organizational, sanitary and hygienic, temporary, household and so on), non-material (praise, honorary titles , government awards and so on).

Personnel incentive methods

Labor incentives are a rather complex procedure. There are certain requirements for its organization: complexity, differentiation, flexibility and efficiency.

Complexity implies the unity of application of intangible and material, collective and individual incentives, the meaning of which depends on the system of approaches to personnel management, the experience and traditions of the enterprise. Complexity also implies the presence of disincentives.

Differentiation means an individual approach to stimulating different layers and groups of workers. Approaches to wealthy and low-income workers must differ significantly. Approaches to regular and young workers should be different.

Flexibility and efficiency are manifested in the revision of incentives depending on changes occurring in society and the team.

Thus, creating an appropriate motivation mechanism is not easy. The practice of using direct and indirect types of management shows that indirect management influences give the greatest effect, however, for short-term work and emergency management tasks, authoritative motivation is more effective, and direct motivation is optimal over long time intervals. As a result, the use of incentives is not only advisable, but must be combined in practice with the use of methods and means of authoritative and direct work motivation. Only together, these methods of influencing the work behavior of employees constitute an effective system of labor motivation.

Stimulation is, first of all, a change in an element of the work situation that affects a person’s behavior in the world of work. In modern times, in the practice and theory of management, this method of influencing a person’s work motivation is considered the most acceptable and promising, since the created working conditions indirectly stimulate the employee to realize his labor and creative potential, to express himself as an individual and an employee at the same time.

Incentives can be material or intangible. The most common management mistake is the absolutization of material incentives and motives. Although these incentives are very important, they still do not fully satisfy the employee’s needs, for example, the needs of the highest level of motivation (the need for respect, self-actualization).

Currently, there are two main approaches to stimulating personnel - comprehensive methodological and adaptation-organizational.

The first of them includes a complex of four main groups of methods aimed at optimizing the motivational potential of work. Based on the strength of the production effect they cause, they are arranged in the following sequence: economic methods, the target method, the method of designing and redesigning work (“labor enrichment”), the method of participation (involving workers - the participatory method).

Economic methods are based on material rewards for work performed, the most important part of which is wages. The salary structure includes base rates, bonus payments, and social programs.

The base rate - a constant part of earnings - must be sufficient to attract workers with the necessary qualifications and training to the company. Social benefits and payments play a large role in the total income of employees. Currently, the range of benefits provided to employees is quite wide: paid holidays, vacations, rest breaks, medical insurance at the enterprise, additional pension insurance, accident insurance, assistance in advanced education, professional training and retraining, provision of employees for use recreation and entertainment facilities and so on.

The company can also make additional payments (bonuses, rewards, prizes, etc.) based on the goals included in the labor incentive program. Innovation-oriented companies, for example, pay great attention to organizing the stimulation of creativity. Thus, IBM encourages innovation proposals that find application. If the proposal is accepted, its author receives 25% of the total savings for two years after its implementation.

A whole incentive system has been developed in organizations in the USA, Japan, Italy, and Germany. This includes free food, invitations to out-of-town trips, free lunches in expensive restaurants, increasing the attractiveness of the place of work (bright colorful stands, fountains, lighting, flowers, birds and small animals).

The most common form of material incentives is a profit-sharing system, the essence of which is that a bonus fund is formed from a predetermined share of profits, from which employees receive regular payments.

Employee profit sharing systems include the Scanlon system, which is based on the distribution between employees and the company of savings in wage costs resulting from labor productivity - output per person.

No less popular is the Rucker system, based on bonuses to workers for increasing the volume of conditionally pure products per dollar of wages.

A widely used remuneration system is the Iproshear system, which consists of additional payments to employees for saving working time (in man-hours) spent on producing a given volume of products.

Within the framework of an integrated methodological approach, a target stimulation method is also used, which is based on two important psychological principles. First, giving goals a clear and precise form in itself leads to increased motivation. Secondly, more difficult goals usually have greater motivating power than easily achievable ones, since a difficult goal is considered by a person as a challenge to his abilities, and the conviction that it is possible to achieve it increases his self-esteem of his capabilities and his own importance. Based on this, goals must be clearly formulated, mobilizing, but realistically achievable.

The method of designing and redesigning work (“labor enrichment”) is to increase motivation by changing and improving the organization of work.

There are three possible options for restructuring work:

1. rotation - a number of jobs are interchanged at regular intervals between employees in order to eliminate the problems of excessive repetition, fatigue from high-precision and detailed work;
2. expansion - the employee is given more diverse interrelated tasks of the same professional level in order to reduce monotonous work;
3. job enrichment - expands its scope vertically to cover tasks that require greater qualifications, greater responsibility for decision-making and greater freedom in taking individual initiatives.

The method of involving personnel is based on the idea of ​​as fully as possible involving performers in the very process of organizing their work and managing it. As a result, the activity (including creative) and initiative of employees is liberated, motivation and responsibility increase. Procedurally, this method requires giving the employee a voice in solving problems, effective delegation of rights regarding the ability to make decisions, and determining appropriate actions to resolve the problem. As an example, we can refer to the experience of the American company Digital Equipment, where self-government groups have been formed in the general accounting and reporting department that resolve issues of work planning, hiring new employees, holding meetings, and coordinating with other departments. When using this method, the professional maturity of workers, their ability and readiness to work increases. This has a direct impact on increasing work motivation and improving the organization’s performance.

The second approach to stimulating an organization's personnel is called adaptation-organizational. However, it can only be conditionally separated from what was discussed above, since it largely uses the same methods and principles of creating motivation. The specificity of the adaptation-organizational approach is that the system of motivating influences is, as it were, distributed over the main phases of its activity - from hiring and related professional adaptation to the final stages of a professional career.

A factor of great motivating significance, which has a long-term effect, is the employee’s first impression of the organization at the time of hiring, therefore it is necessary to organize the first days and even hours of the employee’s stay in the organization accordingly, to ensure the stage of primary adaptation. This includes providing a gentle work regime, softer evaluation criteria, guardianship and mentoring.

The next aspect of optimizing the motivating function correlates with the mature stages of a professional career, with the achievement of a high level of professional competence. Here, the entire system of already discussed participatory methods (method of employee involvement) for ensuring motivation should come to the fore. Another means of motivation provided by this approach during this period is to ensure “elasticity of working time” - giving the employee partial right to plan his own working time, manage it depending on his individual characteristics and life situations.

In the organizational-adaptation approach, a large role is given to the method of informing about the results of work, that is, feedback. It has been proven that the need for information about the quality of work is an independent incentive for its implementation. Information is associated with the practice of “non-directive consultations” (kindly listening to a subordinate who finds himself in a state of frustration or strong emotional stress), interviews “over the head” of management (periodic conversations of employees with the manager of their manager), open door programs (personal appeal from an employee to the manager of any rank) and so on.

Thus, labor stimulation is a system of measures that indirectly influence the employee’s personality, the change and formation of his work motivation, in order to arouse his desire to work conscientiously, professionally and in an organized manner, fully realizing his personal and business potential.

Currently, there are a huge number of methods and forms of incentives, however, it should be remembered that the development of mechanisms for motivating employees should not be carried out “according to a template.” It is always necessary to take into account the characteristics of the organization (its history, traditions, specific activities, etc.), as well as the individual motives of the employees working in it.

Thus, work motivation can be considered both as a process of influencing a performer in various ways and means, aimed at encouraging him to work, and as a result of this influence, reflecting the resulting set of work motives.

Factors influencing staff motivation

There are several points of view regarding the factors influencing staff motivation.

Utkin E.A., Kochetkova A.I. identify supporting and motivating factors.

Supporting factors:

• money;
• conditions;
• tools for work;
• safety;
• reliability.

Motivating factors:

• confession;
• height;
• achievements;
• responsibility and authority.

If both groups of factors are absent, the work becomes unbearable.

If only supporting factors are present, job dissatisfaction is minimal.

If only motivating factors are present, the employee loves the job, but cannot afford it.

If both groups of factors are present, the job brings maximum satisfaction.

This approach to identifying factors influencing motivation is quite close to F. Herzberg’s theory of two factors.

In addition, Utkin E.A., Kochetkova A.I. highlight demotivating factors: shouting and rudeness of management, chaos, lack of understanding of responsibility and authority. The authors note that any action towards employees can be both a motivating and demotivating factor. It is important to evaluate this action in relation to specific people. A number of demotivating factors are a consequence of the leader's personality or lack of understanding by him of what actually motivates subordinates.

Ilyin E.P. identifies psychological factors (in other words, education) involved in a specific motivational process and calls them motivators (motivational determinants). He says that they become arguments for decision-making when explaining the basis of action and action. Listed below are those highlighted by E.P. Iliin. motivator groups:

Moral control (presence of moral principles);

Preferences (interests, inclinations);

External situation;

Own capabilities;

Own state at the moment;

Conditions for achieving the goal (expenditure of effort and time);

The consequences of your action or deed.

In the process of motivation, many motivators remain only “known”, “understood”, and those that acquire the greatest significance for a person and lead to the formation of motivation become “really effective”.

Mackenzie R. A. identifies the following factors:

Control method;

Organizational climate;

Culture, group norms;

Factors related to the person: the employee's self-image, personality, abilities and skills, values ​​and needs, as well as expectations formed on the basis of his earlier life experiences.

Very much attention in the issue of factors influencing the motivation of employees is given to job satisfaction and it is said that it influences motivation. Although there is also the opposite opinion. So Handle A.A. and Sakada N.A.

describe the study of V.A. Yadov, which states that “a study of job satisfaction (dissatisfaction) is “the most inadequate method for studying the motivation of work.” Lutens F. also says that there is no clear direct connection between satisfaction and productivity.

Therefore, the question of the influence of job satisfaction on staff motivation remains unresolved, but one way or another this factor takes place in the issue of employee motivation and requires consideration.

In general, among all the listed factors, two factors can be identified that require special consideration when building and adjusting the motivation system in a particular organization.

1. The first such factor is the organizational culture of the enterprise (the system of norms and rules of behavior that exists in the organization, relating to the interaction of management and staff, communication networks, methods of conflict resolution, decision-making methods, etc.). There are 4 types of organizational cultures.
2. Bureaucratic - the organization is directed by strong leadership, roles and responsibilities are prescribed and fixed, leadership determines leaders and possible directions for development, information and data are controlled and access to them is limited.
3. Entrepreneurial - the organization is directed by free initiative, functions and responsibilities are obtained as people make them, management gives people to do what they see fit, are used for individual achievements.
4. Participative - the organization is guided by inclusive discussions, roles and responsibilities are shared and rotated as needed, leadership acts as a catalyst for group interaction and collaboration, information and data are assessed and shared openly

If the motivation system developed in the organization conflicts with the behavioral characteristics of real employees, the system must be adjusted. Attempts to impose motives from above without taking into account the existing organizational culture are ineffective. Below are the most characteristic features of the motivational sphere of employees for different types of organizational cultures (provided that employees accept and share the organizational culture).

1. With the dominance of a bureaucratic organizational culture, the incentive for employees is primarily economic interest (material incentives, money, etc.).
2. When organic organizational culture dominates, employees are primarily concerned with social needs and gain a sense of self-identity only in relationships with other people. Employees tend to respond positively to the initiatives of their superiors when they take into account the social needs of their subordinates and, first of all, the need for public recognition.
3. If an entrepreneurial organizational culture prevails, the most effective way to motivate employees is a challenge that opens up a good opportunity for their self-realization. At the same time, the challenge should be proportionate to the potential of the employees, and the manager should provide a decent reward in case of success.
4. In a participative organizational culture, each individual is unique, so standard management approaches do not work, but must be formulated in relation to a specific person and a given situation.

The second factor is leadership style and deserves the most attention in the literature. So Tarasov V. says that “the direct impact on satisfaction with working conditions is exerted by the features of employee management - the leadership style and the system of norms and rules of behavior that exist in the organization - organizational culture.” V. Korienko also points out that leadership style is a motivating factor.

The concepts of leadership style and organizational culture of the organization should be clarified.

It is necessary to clarify the concepts of leadership style and organizational culture.

Leadership style is a stable set of traits of a leader, manifested in his relationships with subordinates. There are three main leadership styles.

1. Authoritarian – sole decision-making by the manager, little interest in the employee as an individual.
2. Democratic – characterized by the manager’s desire to develop collective decisions; the manager jointly agrees with the employees on the goals of the organization and takes into account the wishes of the employees.
3. Liberal - characterized by the leader’s desire to avoid making decisions and shift this task to others. The manager gives complete freedom of action to his employees.

At this stage of the study, there is all the necessary information to build a diagnostic model of the organization’s personnel motivation system, which will be the subject of the next chapter.

Thus, factors that in one way or another influence staff motivation can be presented as follows (see Table 3).

Methods for studying work motivation

When using certain managerial influences in practice, managers need to take into account the internal and external motivations of employees’ labor behavior, that is, to know what specifically motivates them to work conscientiously and proactively, and what, on the contrary, causes indifference, or even a negative attitude towards work.

Understanding the inner world of a person, the basis of his actions and actions related to work, the ability to predict and influence his work behavior requires studying the motivational makeup of the individual, that is, finding out the answer to such questions: what needs during work activity are typical for a person, and what their hierarchy? In what ways and by what means does he prefer to satisfy this or that need? What situations and conditions usually trigger this or that work behavior? What is the personality's orientation? The answer to most of these questions can only be obtained by using a variety of methods for studying work motives.

Work motivation as an object of psychodiagnostic research has some features that are determined, first of all, by the specificity of the motives of work activity themselves, the sources of obtaining information about work motives, and methods of studying them.

The motive for work behavior is based on the need associated with work activity. However, there is no one-to-one correspondence between the system of needs and the system of motives. Both motives and needs have their own qualitative specificity and cannot be identified. The same need can be realized through different motives, and the same motive can realize different needs. Thus, a whole class of motives corresponds to a need, and a motive can be included in different need classes. As a result, the diagnosis of motives and needs is not identical, although it is closely interrelated.

Each work motive has its own motivational weight, which characterizes the degree of contribution that this motive makes to the realization of a particular need. However, motives associated with a specific need are not just a sum of motives, but a hierarchical system in which there are certain levels of dominance of motives. Determining the motivational weights of motives makes it possible to discover the general characteristics of the subject of need. Identification of the level of dominance of motives makes it possible to clarify the specific specifics of the substantive content of needs.

In the psychodiagnostics of work motivation, a number of indicators are used - indicators that allow one to judge the qualitative or quantitative characteristics of work motives. The most common ones include:

• direct assessment of a person’s ideas about the causes or characteristics of work behavior;
• identifying a system of incentive values ​​relevant to labor motives;
• time of decision-making in case of motivational conflict of choice of alternatives;
• assessment of the effectiveness of activities;
• dynamics of human labor behavior over a long period;
• products of activity.

The most natural source of obtaining information about people’s work motives is the work itself - its process and result. By observing and analyzing an employee’s work activity, one can answer the question of what aspects of work he values ​​most, what work values ​​he is trying to achieve, what he doesn’t like about work, what he is indifferent to.

Another source of information about the work motives of employees may be the results of relevant psychological studies conducted using various psychodiagnostic techniques. As a rule, to study the motives of work, direct methods of psychodiagnostics are used - questionnaires, surveys, interviews. Methods of this type are based on the first indicator (direct assessment), although methods may differ in methods of construction and other features. The principle of these methods is as follows: a person is offered a certain list of work motives, needs, interests, and so on for selection or evaluation.

The most common method of studying work motives is to study employee satisfaction with their work. Methods for studying satisfaction, as a rule, use three types of questions: questions to identify the degree of satisfaction with an individual’s work; questions about identifying opinions regarding job satisfaction and dissatisfaction; questions about the individual's possible subsequent actions.

When formulating answer options for questions of the first type, various scales are used: two-term (yes - no), three-term (satisfied - not completely satisfied - not satisfied), five-term (completely dissatisfied - rather dissatisfied - both satisfied and not satisfied - rather satisfied - completely satisfied), seven-membered and ten-membered.

In addition to satisfaction questionnaires, there are also various methods for calculating job satisfaction indices - the V.A. Work Situation Assessment Index. Yadov, satisfaction index V.S. Maksimenko and more.

Another common way to study work motivation is to register the subjective significance (value) for employees of work in general and its individual aspects, since the more valued elements of the work situation are motivating factors for effective work. Typically, researchers who support this method of studying work motives are interested in three questions in this area:

1. labor factors that are most significant for various categories of workers;
2. the nature of the dependencies between more valued factors and the characteristics of various categories of workers;
3. the nature of the relationships between value preferences and labor productivity.

Currently, there are quite a large number of direct psychodiagnostic techniques that study various aspects of work motivation. These include:

• methods aimed at studying the structure of labor motivation - the method of K. Zamfir; methodology, V.K. Gerbachevsky;
• methods for studying job satisfaction in general and its individual components -. questionnaire T.L. Badoev, as well as the method of paired comparisons and the technique of V.A. Rozanova;
• diagnostics of dominant needs - a test based on the motivational theory of F. Herzberg; a technique whose conceptual basis is D. McClelland's theory of motivation;
• studying the professional orientation of an individual both in terms of professional interests and in terms of attitudes related to work - differential diagnostic questionnaire (DQ) E.A. Klimova; questionnaire developed by O.B. Godlinik; a review of Jackson's professional interests; introspection of Holland's professional inclinations; overview of Kuder's professional interests; indicative questionnaire proposed by V. Smekail and M. Kucher;
• studying the motives for choosing a profession - questionnaire E.P. Ilyina; methodology for studying the motives for choosing a medical profession A.P. Vasilkova.

Methods for direct diagnosis of work motivation have a number of disadvantages. Because they describe hypothetical situations, it can be difficult for a person to answer what they would do. In addition, not all motives are conscious, and a person cannot say anything definite about them. A serious disadvantage is also that responses to questionnaires are subject to conscious or unconscious falsification. A person often strives for socially approved answers, that is, the answers are influenced by the factor of social desirability. However, these methods are quite simple to implement, compact, and do not require much time, which is why they act as the most convenient tool for diagnosing work motivation in production conditions.

Conclusion

Personnel motivation occupies one of the central places in the personnel management of an organization. A positive attitude of employees towards work and the associated high efficiency, business initiative and conscientiousness are achieved only if the employee is personally interested in his activities. This interest is due to persistent motivation to work, reflecting a certain structure of a person’s work motives.

Labor motivation in its psychological understanding is a hierarchized set of labor motives that determines the employee’s desire to satisfy any needs (receive certain benefits) through work activity. Each person has a specific structure of work motivation that is specific to him, depending on his individual characteristics, experience, and the nature of acquired labor standards and values.

Knowledge of this structure is valuable. It allows, firstly, to understand the nature of employee expectations associated with work activity, secondly, to anticipate (with a certain degree of probability) the emergence of certain facts of labor behavior, and thirdly, to successfully manage the activities of teams and rationally use methods and means of influencing not only people’s labor behavior, but also the labor situation as a whole, allowing employees to work in it comfortably and in accordance with their needs.

Currently, in psychology there are several theoretical directions in the field of personnel motivation. Among them, one can distinguish substantive and procedural theories, which differ in their approach to understanding the process of motivation and the factors that determine it.

For psychologists working in the field of personnel management, issues of motivation are among the most significant, since it is important not only to recruit effective employees, but also to provide them with all the necessary conditions for fruitful activity.

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1. The study of human motivation and motives. Methods for studying motivation and motives

The fulfillment of the tasks facing psychological science to a certain extent depends on how successful the study of various aspects of human activity, the patterns of its change and the possibilities of regulation in the right direction will be.

Considering human motivation as a psychological phenomenon, scientists have encountered many difficulties, which required science to more intensively develop human problems in both theoretical and practical terms. The need to understand the patterns of functioning of the psyche and to know how they determine human behavior in various situations has become more obvious.

As is known, human mental development occurs in conditions of a very complex and diverse relationship between biological and social; it is determined by the interrelation of organic inclinations and the activity of the individual, realized in specific socio-historical conditions (Brushlinsky A.B., 1974). Being included in historically established forms of human activity, any human activity is subject to the laws of social development.

The study of motivational processes in humans is, in essence, the study of the individual in his activities. The specificity of human activity is that it is always purposeful. The ability to set goals is one of the fundamental features of man as a rational being. Expressing the active side of consciousness and often determining the method and nature of a person’s actions, the goal that a person sets for himself integrates into a single whole the complex structure of regulatory processes of behavior, determines that a person performs a given act and not another. S.L. pays great attention to the relationship between motives and goals of activity. Rubinstein. It is this circumstance, in his opinion, that determines the conscious mental life of the individual and draws through it, although changing in relation to circumstances, but still a single life line. And that is why, when studying motivation, due attention should be paid to the psychological analysis of activity.

The conditioning of the human psyche by historically established forms of activity suggests the need to consider the problem of motivation also from the perspective of the connection and interdependence of activity and consciousness. The activity of human activity is determined not only by the vital needs of the body, but is also due to the awareness of the dependence of the satisfaction of individual requests on the implementation of certain actions aimed at satisfying both the needs of the person himself and the needs of society... This emphasizes the most important role of consciousness in the activities of man as a social being by nature .

P.M. Yakobson draws attention to the obvious need for strictly psychological (as opposed to neurophysiological) methods of causal explanation of human behavior. It is impossible, for example, to call the instability of the nervous system the cause of criminal behavior, since it remains unclear why many people with similar psycho-physiological data do not commit such actions.

Over the course of more than half a century, much research has been carried out in the West on the problem of motivation of behavior, which developed mainly within three directions: behaviorism, psychoanalysis, Gestalt psychology, as well as later and modern modifications of these trends. Many foreign theories of motivation are based on experiments with animals, so in some cases direct extrapolation to humans is impossible. In addition, the question arises: can these theories be considered truly motivational at all? Are they not biological theories of the determination of behavior?

Growing interest in the psychology of personality, in complex dynamic changes in its activities and actions, makes the study of the motivation of human behavior an urgent task of psychological science. Obviously, a critical examination of existing points of view on the problem and the search for a new approach to solving it are required. This will be addressed in future lectures and seminars.

Everyone knows how important it is for people to know each other’s motives, especially in joint activities. However, identifying the reasons for a person’s actions and actions is not a simple matter, associated with both objective and subjective difficulties. The study of a person’s psychological make-up includes clarifying the following questions:

What needs are inherent in this person;

By what means does he prefer to satisfy his needs?

What situations or conditions trigger this or that behavior;

What has a stronger influence on motivation – existing needs or a sense of duty and responsibility;

What is the orientation of the personality?

The answer to most of these questions can only be obtained by using a variety of methods for studying motives and personality.

Psychologists have developed several approaches to studying human motivation and motives: experiment, observation, conversation, survey, questionnaire, analysis of activity products, etc. All these methods can be divided into three groups:

1. A survey of the subject carried out in one form or another;

2. Assessment of behavior and its causes from the outside (observation method);

3. experimental methods.

In addition, there are three general methodological approaches to the study of motives: indirect, direct and projective.

In the first approach, the research procedure requires the subject to perform such actions, the diagnostic intent of which remains unclear to the subject. For example, the starting point of a motivational test under controlled conditions may be selectivity in remembering events, unequal awareness in different areas, and the intensity of the desire for something.

Procedures for the indirect approach to studying motives are sometimes called “objective” tests. The methodology for such tests has not been sufficiently developed, and the procedures of the indirect approach have not yet found widespread use.

The second, direct approach is based on the subjects’ own statements... This procedure has serious drawbacks. Firstly, the answers can be distorted (unconsciously) or deliberately falsified by the subject, and secondly, the answers require self-assessment, which is associated with many difficulties.

Compliance with the general methodological principles of the survey and careful development of the tests themselves can prevent the influence of most of the reasons leading to distortion of behavior, or promptly reveal these distortions.

The difficulty of self-assessment can be eliminated if the test is designed correctly and its questions do not require deep self-analysis.

The third approach to studying motives is that the subject is offered multi-semantic material. These ambiguous situations are perceived differently by subjects with different motivational spheres... A significant drawback of these procedures is that the statements of the subjects can be interpreted quite arbitrarily by the experimenter and there are no objective criteria.

In the practice of studying motives of behavior, questionnaires and tests that implement the second approach are most widely used. The information obtained during this procedure is in the nature of direct reactions to verbal indicators. The indicators are questions to which the subject answers affirmatively or negatively, or statements that he considers true or false. Possible answers are usually given in advance and only require marking with a symbol.

Tests for the study of motives are built on the assumption that the reasons that motivate behavior are recognized by the person and can be qualitatively assessed. Thus, motive tests are psychometric procedures aimed at certain degrees of indicative expression.

The nature of motives is determined by a large number of individual indicators (from 15 to 40), having the same focus. The answer to one indicator is not considered reliable enough.

A large number of indicators contributes to the accuracy of the structural and measurement models.

However, there are no ideal methods that would allow us to trace the entire process of constructing motives, to identify its essential points and thereby the structure of the motive of a particular action or deed. Hardly ever. Basically, the methods are aimed at identifying personal dispositions (personality properties, attitudes), which, as dominant tendencies, can influence decision making and the formation of intentions, but it is by no means known whether they influenced the decision specifically in this case.

It should be noted that identifying a person’s motives is difficult, but not hopeless. It requires the integrated use of various techniques that make it possible to identify the underlying causes of human behavior (needs, motivational attitudes, current state), and not just goals. However, it should still be taken into account that, like any psychological diagnosis, determining the motive of behavior is a probabilistic process, which in some cases does not provide an absolute guarantee of the correctness of the diagnosis.

2. Characteristics of the main theories of motivation in domestic and foreign psychology

The scientific study of the causes of human and animal activity, their determination, was started by the great thinkers of antiquity - Aristotle, Heraclitus, Democritus, Lucretius, Plato, Socrates, who mentioned “need as the teacher of life.” Democritus, for example, considered need (need) as the main driving force that not only set in motion emotional experiences, but made the human mind sophisticated, allowing the acquisition of language, speech and the habit of work. Without needs, a person would not be able to come out of a wild state.

Heraclitus examined in detail the motivating forces, drives, and needs. In his opinion, needs are determined by living conditions, therefore pigs rejoice in dirt, donkeys prefer straw to gold, birds bathe in dust and ash, etc. Speaking about the connection between incentive forces and reason, Heraclitus noted that every desire is bought at a price, therefore the abuse of desires leads to its weakening. At the same time, moderation in satisfying needs contributes to the development and improvement of a person’s intellectual abilities.

Socrates wrote that every person has needs, desires, and aspirations. At the same time, the main thing is not what a person’s aspirations are, but what place they occupy in his life. A person cannot overcome his nature and get out of dependence on other people if he is not able to control his needs, desires and behavior. People who are unable to tame their impulses are slaves to bodily passions and external reality. Therefore, a person should strive to minimize needs and satisfy them only when they become truly urgent. All this would bring a person closer to a god-like state, and he could direct the main efforts of his will and mind to the search for truth and the meaning of life.

For Plato, needs, drives and passions form the “desirable or inferior” soul, which is like a herd and requires guidance from the “reasonable and noble soul.”

Aristotle made significant progress in explaining the mechanisms of human behavior. He believed that aspirations are always associated with a goal in which an object is presented in the form of an image or thought that has a beneficial or harmful meaning for the organism. On the other hand, aspirations are determined by needs and the associated feelings of pleasure and displeasure, the function of which is to communicate and evaluate the suitability or unsuitability of a given object for the life of the organism. Thus, any volitional movement and emotional state that determines human activity have natural foundations.

The views of Lucretius are also close to these views. The sources of will, in his opinion, are desires arising from needs.

The Dutch philosopher B. Spinoza considered the main motivating force of behavior to be affects, to which he attributed primarily the drives associated with both the body and the soul. If attraction is realized, then it turns into desire.

French materialists of the late 10th century attached particular importance to needs as the main sources of human activity. E. Condillac understood needs as anxiety caused by the lack of something leading to pleasure. Thanks to needs, he believed, all mental and physical habits arise.

P. Holbach also emphasized the certain role of needs in human life, but did it deeper and more consistently. Needs, he wrote, are the driving factor of our passions, will, and mental activity. Through motives, which are real or imaginary objects with which the well-being of the organism is connected, needs activate our mind, feelings and will and direct them to take certain measures to maintain the existence of the organism. A person’s needs are continuous, and this circumstance serves as the source of his constant activity. P. Holbach, in the doctrine of needs, argued that external causes alone are sufficient to explain human activity, and completely rejected the traditional idea of ​​idealism about the spontaneous activity of consciousness, cognitive, emotional and activity.

K. Helvetius considered passions to be the source of human activity. Physical or natural passions arise from the satisfaction or unsatisfaction of needs. He identified the latter with sensations.

N.G. assigned a major role to the needs in understanding human behavior. Chernyshevsky. Only through them, he believed, can one understand the relationship of the subject to the object, determine the role of material and economic conditions for the mental and moral development of the individual. He associated the development of cognitive abilities with the development of needs. The primary ones are organic needs, the satisfaction of which also leads to the emergence of moral and aesthetic needs. Animals are endowed only with physical needs, which determine their behavior and mental life.

R. Woodworth also assigned a significant role in human mental activity to the needs. Thanks to them, the body turns out to be sensitive to some stimuli and indifferent to others, which, thus, not only determines the nature of motor reactions, but also affects the perception of the surrounding world (here the views of R. Woodworth and A.A. Ukhtomsky on the dominant and, according to Essentially, need is considered as a dominant source of excitation).

In the 20s and subsequent years of our century, theories of motivation that relate only to humans appeared in Western psychology (K. Levin, G. Allport). Here, along with organic ones, secondary (psychogenic) needs that arise as a result of training and upbringing are highlighted (G. Murray). These include the need to achieve success, affiliation and aggression, the need for independence and opposition, respect and protection, dominance and attraction of attention, the need to avoid failures and harmful influences, etc. A. Maslow also gave his classification of needs (A. Maslow, 1954).

As we see in the twentieth century, the concept of “motivation” remains closely related to the concept of “needs”. At the same time, need theories of motivation were contrasted with the views of behaviorists on motivation, according to which behavior unfolds according to the “stimulus-response” scheme.

Behaviorists noted that the term “motivation” is too general and not scientific enough, that experimental psychology under this name actually studies needs and inclinations (drives) that are of a purely physiological nature. Behaviorists explain behavior through the “stimulus-response” scheme, considering the stimulus as an active source of the body’s reaction. For them, the problem of motivation is not a problem, since, from their point of view, the dynamic condition of behavior is the reactivity of the organism, that is, its ability to respond in a specific way to stimuli. True, it is noted that the body does not always react to an external stimulus, and therefore a factor (called motivation) has been introduced into the scheme to explain differences in reactivity. But again, this factor was reduced to purely physiological mechanisms: differences in the body’s sensitivity to a given stimulus, i.e., to sensation thresholds. Based on this, motivation began to be understood as a state whose function is to lower the threshold of the body’s reactivity to certain stimuli. In this case, the motive is considered as an energizer or sensitizer.

The most prominent representative of dynamic psychology, the American R. Woodworth (1918), criticizing behaviorists, interpreted the response to external influence as a complex and changeable act in which past experience and the uniqueness of external and internal existing conditions are integrated. This synthesis is achieved through mental activity, the basis of which is the desire for a goal (need).

In everyday life, it is generally accepted that human behavior is determined by a plan and the desire to implement this plan and achieve a goal. This scheme, as noted by J. Nutten (1984), corresponds to reality and takes into account complex human behavior, while behaviorists take only an elementary mental reaction as a model. It is necessary to remember, writes J. Nuytten, that behavior is also a search for absent or not yet existing situations and objects, and not just a reaction to them. This is the basis for the views of psychologists who consider motivation as an independent, specific mechanism for organizing human and animal behavior.

Even W. James, at the end of the last century, identified several types of decision-making (formation of intention, desire for action) as a conscious, deliberate motivational act. Objects of thought that delay the final action or favor it, he calls the reasons, or motives, of a given decision.

In the second half of the twentieth century, the motivational concepts of J. Rotter (1954), G. Kelly (1955), H. Heckhausen (1955), J. Atkinson (1964) appeared. ), D. McClelland (1971), which are characterized by the recognition of the leading role of consciousness in the determination of human behavior. Cognitive theories of motivation led to the introduction of new motivational concepts into scientific use: social needs, life goals, cognitive factors, cognitive dissonance, values, expectation of success, fear of failure, level of aspiration.

R. Cattell (1957) constructed a “dynamic lattice of aspirations.” He identified motivational dispositions such as “ergs” (from the Greek eggon - energy, work), in which he saw a kind of biologically determined drives, and “engrams”, the nature of which is contained not in the biological structure, but in the life history of the subject.

In many foreign motivational concepts, decision-making becomes the central mental process that explains behavior.

Psychoanalytic theories of motivation. A new stage in the study of the determination of behavior began at the end of the 19th century in connection with the emergence of the teachings of Sigmund F. (S. Freud, 1895) about the unconscious and human drives. He assigned a decisive role in the organization of behavior to the unconscious core of mental life, formed by powerful drives. Mainly sexual (libido) and aggressive, demanding immediate satisfaction and blocked by the personality censor - the “Super-I”, i.e., internalized during the socialization of the individual by social norms and values. If for W. James motivation was to a decisive extent associated with conscious decision-making (taking into account many external and internal factors), then for S. Freud and his followers in the determination of behavior the decisive role was assigned to the unconscious, the suppression of whose impulses by the “Super-I” leads to neuroses.

W. McDougall (1923), who believed that a person has eighteen instincts, also developed his theory in the same direction. He put forward the “hormic” concept, according to which the driving force of behavior, including social behavior, is a special innate (instinctive) energy (“forge”), which determines the nature of the perception of objects, creates emotional arousal and directs the mental and physical actions of the body towards the goal. Each instinct has its own emotion, which from a short-term state turns into a feeling as a stable and organized system of dispositions - predispositions to action. Thus, he tried to explain the behavior of an individual by the desire for a goal that was initially inherent in the depths of his psychophysiological organization.

A number of foreign psychologists consider the stages of the motivational process within the framework of the Gestalt approach. We are talking about a cycle of contact, the essence of which is the actualization and satisfaction of needs during a person’s interaction with the external environment: the dominant need appears in the foreground of consciousness as a figure against the background of personal experience and, satisfied, dissolves again in the background. In this process, up to six phases are distinguished: sensation of a stimulus, its awareness - excitement (decision, emergence of an impulse) - beginning of an action - contact with an object - retreat (return to the original state). In this case, the marked phases can be clearly differentiated or overlap each other.

Among the domestic psychologists of the early twentieth century who raised questions about the motivation of human behavior, it should be noted, first of all, A.F. Lazursky, who published the book “Essay on the Science of Character” in 1906. It devotes quite a lot of space to a thorough discussion of issues related to desires and drives, the struggle of motives and decision-making, the stability of decisions (intentions) and the ability to internally delay incentive impulses; The stated provisions have not lost their relevance today.

Another major Russian psychologist, N. N. Lange (1914), also discussed in his works about the drives, desires and “wants” of a person, in connection with questions about the will and in acts of the left. In particular, he gave his understanding of the differences between drives and “wants,” believing that the latter are drives that turn into active actions. For him, “wanting” is an active will.

In the 20s and later, issues of behavioral motivation were considered by V.M. Vorovsky (1927), N.Yu. Voitonis (1929, 1935), who stood in biologization positions. L.S. In his works, Vygotsky also did not ignore the problem of determination and motivation of human behavior. Thus, in the textbook “Pedology of the Adolescent” (1930), he devotes a large chapter to the question of the essence of interests and their changes in adolescence. He believed that the problem of the relationship between drives and interests is the key to understanding the mental development of a teenager, which is determined primarily by the evolution of the child’s interests and behavior, and changes in the structure of the direction of his behavior. Despite some one-sidedness on the issue of interests, what was undoubtedly positive in his views was the belief that interests are not skills, as many psychologists believed at that time. In another work - “History of the development of higher mental functions” - L. S. Vygotsky pays great attention to the issue of the “struggle of motives.” He was one of the first to distinguish between motive and incentive and spoke about voluntary motivation. In the 40s, motivation, from the perspective of the “attitude theory,” was considered by D.N. Uznadze (1966), who said that the source of activity is a need, which he understood very broadly, namely as something that is necessary for the body, but which it does not currently possess.

The development and development of the theory of motivation was also carried out by the famous domestic psychologist A.N. Leontyev. The difference between this theory is that it is based on the basic principles of dialectical materialism and uses the main thesis of this philosophical direction: it is not consciousness that determines being, human activity, but, on the contrary, being, human activity determines his consciousness. Leontyev proposed the following scheme of activity: activity – action – operation – psychophysiological functions. The scheme correlates with the structure of the motivational sphere (motive - goal - condition).

The main concepts of this theory are activity, consciousness and personality. The central place in this hierarchical structure is occupied by action, which is the main unit of activity analysis. Action is a process aimed at realizing a goal, which, in turn, can be defined as an image of the desired result. Thus, action is a conscious manifestation of human activity. The main characteristics of the concept of “action” are four components. First, action includes as a necessary component an act of consciousness in the form of setting and maintaining a goal. Secondly, action is also an act of behavior. Thirdly, the psychological theory of activity introduces the principle of activity through the concept of action, contrasting it with the principle of reactivity. The concept of “reactivity” implies a response or reaction to the influence of any stimulus. Fourthly, the concept of “action” brings human activity into the objective and social world.

Based on the characteristics of the concept of “action” as the main element of activity analysis, the fundamental principles of the psychological theory of activity are formed:

1. Consciousness cannot be considered as closed in itself: it must manifest itself in activity (the principle of “blurring” the circle of consciousness).

2. Behavior cannot be considered in isolation from human consciousness (the principle of the unity of consciousness and behavior).

3. Activity is an active, purposeful process (the principle of activity).

4. Human actions are objective, their goals are social in nature (the principle of objective human activity and the principle of its social conditionality).

The action itself cannot be considered as the element of the initial level from which the activity is formed. Actions are a complex element, which often itself consists of many smaller ones. This situation is explained by the fact that every action is determined by a goal. Human goals are not only varied, but also of different scales. There are large goals that are divided into smaller private goals, and those, in turn, can be divided into smaller private goals, etc.

Each action can be performed in different ways, i.e. using different methods. The way an action is performed is called an operation. In turn, the method of performing an action depends on the conditions. Under different conditions, different operations may be used to achieve the same goal. Conditions are both external circumstances and the capabilities of the acting subject himself. Therefore, the goal in this theory is a task. Operations are larger units of activity than actions. Operations are little or not realized. The level of operations is the level of automatic actions and skills. There are two ways to form operations: 1) through adaptation and adaptation to living conditions and activities; 2) conscious actions that have become skills thanks to automation. The first path is practically not realized, the second is on the verge of consciousness. It is difficult to distinguish a clear line between operations and actions.

The third level of the structure of activity is psychophysiological functions - physiological mechanisms for ensuring mental processes, therefore, a person is a biosocial being. The course of mental processes is inseparable from processes at the physiological level, which provide the body’s capabilities, without which most mental functions cannot be carried out. These are sensation abilities, motor abilities, the ability to record traces of past influences and a number of innate mechanisms. Psychophysiological functions constitute the organic foundation of activity processes. Without them, not only specific actions are impossible, but also setting tasks for their implementation.

In many foreign and domestic motivational concepts, the central mental process that explains behavior is decision making. The disadvantage of these theories of motivation is the consideration of only individual aspects of the motivational process, without attempts to combine them. This is due to the fact that their authors deny the fundamental possibility of creating a universal theory of motivation that would equally satisfactorily explain the behavior of animals and humans.

List of used literature:

1. General psychology: a textbook for high school students. uch. establishments./ S.D. Maksimenko, G.V. Veshtejunas, V.V. Klimenko, V.A. Solovienko - M.: “Refl-book”, K.: “Vakler”, 2000. - 528 p.

2. Diligensky G.G. Problems of the theory of human needs // Questions of philosophy. – 1984. – No. 4.- P. 19-25.

3. Ilyin E.P. Motivation and motives - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000. - 512 p.

4. Zanyuk Sergey. Psychology of motivation. – K.: Elga-N, Nika-center – 2001. – 352 p.

5. Heckhausen H. Motivation and activity: T.1; Per. from German/Ed. B.M. Velichkovsky. – M.: Pedagogy, 1986.-408 p.