Describe the information criteria for the effectiveness of interpersonal communication in an organization.

What and why is the closest to such effectiveness:
a) a friendly atmosphere of communication,
b) the desire of the parties to continue communications,
c) the proximity of the meaning of the received message to the meaning of the sent message.

The information criterion for the effectiveness of interpersonal communication is:

c) the proximity of the meaning of the received message to the meaning of the sent message

The remaining answers either relate to psychological rather than informational criteria, or describe the intentions, or determine the actions of one party, which does not guarantee the quality of information perception by the other party.

1. How can nonverbal communication contribute to the effectiveness of verbal communication?

one of the most mysterious and difficult areas of communication to master, since most often they are carried out at the subconscious level. The elements of nonverbal communications include:

Basic types of non-verbal communication - Examples Body movements - Gestures, facial expressions, eye movements, touch, posture Personal physical qualities - Body structure, weight, height, hair and skin color, body odor, muscles Speech - Voice qualities, literacy, frequency of speech, slurred speech, laughter, yawning, etc. Use of the environment - The way of using and feeling the external environment, the manner of placing oneself in the environment, distance proximity in communication, the feeling of “own” and “alien” territory Physical environment - Design of the room, furniture and other objects, decorations, cleanliness and tidiness, lighting, noise Time - Being late, arriving early, the tendency to make people wait, time culture, the relationship between time and status

Nonverbal components are most closely related to national culture

It should be emphasized that non-verbal components are most closely related to national culture. Therefore, for example, a direct transfer of interpretation, eye contact from European to Japanese culture can lead to serious mistakes and even troubles: in Japanese culture, direct eye contact with an interlocutor is considered a sign of psychological aggression and bad manners, while in most European cultures its absence is condemned .

Example of differences in gesture interpretation

Below are interpretations of essentially the same gesture, familiar to us from childhood - the thumb and index finger form a ring. However, how much its meaning varies depending on the characteristics of the demonstration and the country!

The meaning of the gesture: OK, everything is fine. Distribution: North America and Europe.

The meaning of the gesture: an offensive gesture. Distribution: Germany, Malta, Tunisia, Greece, Türkiye,

Middle East and parts of South America.

The meaning of the gesture: zero. Distribution: Belgium, France, Tunisia.

The meaning of the gesture: money. Distribution: Japan.

The meaning of the gesture: perfection. Distribution: South America.

Meaning of the gesture: What are you talking about? Distribution: Italy.

The meaning of the gesture: justice. Distribution: Italy.

Nonverbal communications in most cases have an unconscious basis, since they indicate the actual emotions of a participant in the communication process and are a reliable indicator of manifested feelings. Nonverbal information is difficult to manipulate and conceal in any interpersonal communication. This largely determines how the words will be interpreted.

A person who is serious about improving his communication skills must master the art of managing his nonverbal signals and reading the signals of his interlocutor. This is all the more important since research shows that nonverbal elements make up more than half of all elements in interpersonal communication.

2. What are some ways to improve organizational communications?

Organizational communications include the exchange of information within an organization between its divisions.

Participants in such communications form a communication network - connecting organizational units using communication flows. The main task of organizational communications is not the transmission of individual symbols or a specific message, but the formation and improvement of information flows.

Communication network organization includes horizontal, vertical and diagonal connections. Vertical connections are established between the leader and the performers. An example of such relationships is the chain of command (top-down) and the provision of reporting information (bottom-up). Horizontal communications exist between divisions of an organization or its members belonging to the same level of the organizational structure. Diagonal communications are connections with units at other levels of the organization that are not related to vertical connections.

Groups of equal size may have different types of communication networks. When formal, centralized Typically, all communications are carried out through the group leader. This ensures high speed and accuracy of transmission, good organization and clearly defined leadership. However, at the same time, the manager “suppresses” the initiative of the performers. At maximum decentralized Typically, all group members have an equal number of communication links. This allows you to achieve a good microclimate in the team. But communications with this type of network are characterized by slow speed, low accuracy, poor organization, and lack of leadership.

The centralized type of communications is more effective when solving relatively simple, well-structured problems. When solving complex problems that require taking into account the opinions of all group members, it is more effective to turn to decentralized, or open, communications.

The main problems in organizational communications are related to the ineffective structure of the organization. There are two possible poles here.

First the pole is represented by a situation where the organizational structure is overextended. At the same time, the number of control levels unreasonably increases, and a very long chain of commands is formed. Decomposition of the main goals of the organization, their specification for individual levels of management and divisions of the organization complicates communications. There may be unintentional distortion of reporting information due to its vertical movement. The presence of conflicts makes deliberate distortion of information very likely and difficult to eliminate.

Second the pole can be represented by a situation where the organizational structure is unreasonably flat. Violation of the norm of controllability can lead to information overload, especially at the highest level of management.

For improvement organizational communications is necessary:

Regulate information flows based on an accurate assessment of information needs (your own and your subordinates);

Improve the feedback system - in particular for collecting, recording and using staff suggestions;

Use management activities for more effective information exchange;

Use additional sources of information (newsletters, videos, newspapers) explaining the activities of the organization.

6. What are the different communication styles and roles? Try to describe the most effective communication style when contacting customers.

Communication style is the way in which an individual prefers

build communication interaction with others. There are many different

styles used by people in interpersonal communication, as well as many

approaches to defining these styles. Knowing styles helps determine what

how to behave and what can be expected from behavior associated with a certain

The basis for measuring interpersonal communication can be taken as follows:

variables such as openness in communication and adequacy of feedback.

The first dimension involves the degree to which one opens or reveals oneself in communication.

for others in order to obtain a response from them, especially their reaction,

showing how they perceive us and our actions. Second dimension

indicates the extent to which people share their thoughts and

feelings about them. Having built a matrix on this basis, where vertically there will be

the first dimension is laid aside, and the second one horizontally, five can be distinguished

styles of interpersonal communication (Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Communication styles.

The communication style of individuals in the first quadrant can be defined as

self discovery. This style is characterized by a high degree of self-openness

different, but low level of feedback from the individual using

this style. Self-discovery in this case is measured in the range from the average

to the maximum. The individual goes for it, thereby concentrating attention on

yourself in order to provoke a reaction from others to your behavior. Unfortunately, this

style suffers from the fact that the reaction of others is often left without adequate

response or feedback from the individual calling it. Taking

the reaction of others to one's behavior is taken to heart when using this style

the individual may exhibit unbridled emotions that do little to

establishing effective relationships between communicating parties.

The communication style of an individual in the second quadrant is defined as

self-realization and is characterized by both maximum openness and

maximum feedback. Under ideal conditions this style is

desirable, but situational factors (organizational policies, differences in

status, etc.) can prompt an individual who owns this style to refuse

The communication style in the third quadrant is characterized by withdrawing into oneself,

those. both a low level of openness and a low level of feedback.

In this case, the individual, as it were, isolates himself, not allowing others to know him.

This style is often used by “introverts” - people with a tendency to pay more attention.

your mind inside yourself. The extreme manifestation of this style is associated with

hiding your ideas, opinions, dispositions and feelings towards others.

Communication style in the fourth quadrant is associated with protecting oneself and how

visible from the matrix, characterized by a low level of openness, but high

level of feedback. It is widely used to get to know better

others or to evaluate them more correctly. Typically, individuals using this

style, little Open to others, but like to discuss others. They love to listen

about themselves, but do not like to discuss their qualities, especially bad ones, with others.

In the middle of the matrix are individuals who “sell” themselves if others

do the same. This style is called “trading for yourself” and

characterized by moderate openness and feedback exchanged in

process of interpersonal communication.

It would be wrong to think that any one of the named communication

styles is the most desirable. However, the practice of effective

communication indicates that the style in which an individual realizes himself

more desirable and used in more situations. Owning one

style is a real asset. Regarding the use of others

styles, it is important to understand the problems of effective feedback, the ability to reveal

yourself and the ability to listen to others.

Communication roles.

Members of an organization interact with each other while performing different functions. Communication roles are the functions performed by members of an organization in the process of transmitting information. Some individuals are like “watchmen”: they control the input flow of messages. Others occupy key positions linking groups. They are called “connected”. The main difference between the third group of people is that they have an informal decisive influence on the behavior of others; these are “opinion leaders” (informal leaders). The fourth group - “cosmopolitans” - are like “windows to the world” of the organization, since they connect the system with the external environment. Figure 18 depicts the main communication roles of individuals.

Fig. 18. Communication roles of individuals

1- “watchman”; 2 - “connected”; 3 - “opinion leader”; 4 - “cosmopolitan”

“Watchman” is an individual who occupies a place in the structure that allows him to regulate the flow of messages passing through a given channel. The function of the “watchman” is similar to that of a valve. If you've ever tried to urgently meet with your boss and his secretary said he was “at a conference,” you'll understand what a “gatekeeper” is. Secretaries, of course, are just one type of “watchman.” Any individual in any communication network, formal or informal, who inserts himself into the chain of communication is a gatekeeper. For example, in the communication chain A® B®C, individual B plays the role of a “watchman”. Likewise, the individual occupying the position through which messages pass is, to a certain extent, a “gatekeeper.” For example, in the three-level structure shown in Fig. 19, individual B performs the functions of a “watchman”.

Fig. 19. Formal communication role of the “watchman”

(individual B in a group with a three-level organizational structure)

One of the “watchdog” functions is to reduce information overload. “Watchman” filters message flows, weeds out unimportant messages and transmits more important ones, helps reduce information overload without interfering with the normal functioning of the organization.

T. Allen at the Sloan School of Business at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (USA) conducted a series of studies on the behavior of “gatekeeper” scientists and sociometrically determined the flow of messages between them. Individuals, called “technological gatekeepers” by T. Allen, controlled the flow of technical and scientific communications between scientists. They tended to establish contacts with many other scientists both outside and within the laboratory. Such people are able to operate within the same system, receive messages, process information and transmit it to their colleagues in written form so that they can use it.

Today there is a need to expand research into the processes of regulating communications in organizations, which are very poorly developed. It is necessary to find out which positions in groups correspond to the persons performing the main “guard” functions, and why. Do the roles of formal “guardians” coincide and to what extent? How effective are “watchmen” in controlling information flows in terms of reducing overloads (without distortion and loss of important information)? What criteria do gatekeepers use when regulating message flows?

A “connector” (sometimes called a “tie point”) is an individual who connects on an interpersonal basis two or more groups in a system without belonging to any of them (certain individuals play a quasi-connective role, being members of a particular group, they are called “bridges” "). “Messengers” are thus located at the intersections of information flows in the organization. “Communicators” are called the cement that holds together the structural “bricks” of the organization: when the “connections” are removed, the system begins to fall apart into isolated groups.

Liaisons are important for transmitting messages between parts of the organization. With the loss of the “liaison,” the unity of the organization is destroyed, and his role is fundamentally important. From a dynamic perspective, the performance of such a role and its indispensability in networks influence the functioning of the organization. If the person in the liaison role is the weak link, the organization is in great trouble. If it is effective, its actions help speed up the flow of information throughout the organization. Due to their great importance, “connectors” have been the subject of numerous studies. Jacobson and Seashore first noted that some individuals function as “liaisons” between groups and are characterized by a large number of frequent, reciprocal and important contacts that cross the structure of the contacting groups. “Messengers” actively participate in the communication system, but it is very difficult to single them out within a single subgroup.

Jacobson and Seashore, having discovered the “connectors,” did not then search for them. The purpose of their study was to find sociometric indicators of group membership. But having identified the groups, they were convinced that “connections” between the groups existed throughout the network. When “connected” people were removed, the network split into unconnected groups.

In subsequent studies, attention was focused on identifying the number of “connected people” in organizations, the stability of connections and their dependence on the content of transmitted messages, as well as on the personal and communication characteristics and properties of “connected people”.

When analyzing organizations, it usually turns out that many senior managers are “liaisons.”

In a study of 142 faculty members at the University of Michigan conducted by Schwartz in 1968, 22 “connectors” (15%) were identified. They connected 29 working groups of varying sizes. In most studies, between 5 and 20% of organizational members were “liaisons.” The exact number and percentage of contacts in the network depends on factors such as the nature of the survey question (compare: “Who do you talk to for work?” and “How often do you contact each person on the list?”), and also on the type of organizational task being solved (for example, whether cooperation or independence of workers is required to complete it).

However, the recent trend in research on “connectors” is relegating the question of their number in an organization to the background. Emend argues that it is more appropriate to view each individual in the system as “connected.” Therefore, he measured the degree of performance of the “connector” function and the correlation of this variable with others. Points on the scale of this variable are awarded to the respondent depending on the extent to which he ensures the coherence of the entire communication network in the organization.

The role of the “liaison” is of great practical importance, since the “liaison” is, of course, the central figure ensuring the effective functioning of the organization’s interpersonal network. “Messengers” occupy strategic positions in organizations. They can either speed up informal messaging or be a bottleneck. Liaison roles seem to have to be formally introduced into organizations if they do not emerge spontaneously.

An “opinion leader” is a person capable of exerting a fairly noticeable informal influence on the attitudes or behavior of other individuals in the desired direction. Thus, the leaders
opinions” are more informal than formal leaders. The concept of “opinion leader” was first introduced by P. Lazarsfeld as part of a model in which it was assumed that flows of messages move from a source through media channels to “opinion leaders” who transmit these messages to those whom they see fit, for example, their supporters .

Opinion leaders gain a position of influence by providing valuable, albeit rare, services to their organization. Following the organizational norms of an “opinion leader” is a valuable service to the organization because he serves as a living example of correct behavior for his followers.

In general, “opinion leaders” have great access to external sources of information, and their main function is to provide contacts for the group with the relevant part of its external environment.

Studying “opinion leaders” in a variety of situations allows us to identify the following common features: more frequent communication with external competent sources of information; their greater accessibility to followers; greater adherence to the norms of the groups they lead.

Like “watchmen”, and possibly “messengers”, “opinion leaders” can be grouped based on the topic of the messages being transmitted.

In most organizations, opinion leadership is not limited to senior managers. The Hawthorne studies (see Unit 1) clearly showed that informal leaders have a very strong influence on the productivity of work group members, although from a hierarchical point of view these leaders occupied the same positions as ordinary workers.

“Cosmopolitan” is an individual who interacts with the external environment of the system more often than others. To the extent that any organization is open, it must have at least a few “cosmopolitans.” In most systems, “cosmopolitans” are located at the top and bottom of the hierarchical ladder. Executives, through frequent business travel and other contacts with external organizations, are also able to obtain new ideas from external sources. Most of their contacts with the environment lie at the macro level, since they collect information about changes in the external environment without having knowledge of the intricacies of the matter.

Individuals at lower levels of the organizational hierarchy also act in part as “cosmopolitans” because they deal with the operational aspects of environmental changes. Thus, lower-level employees are in direct contact with customers, incoming materials and fuel, and information about production. Their “cosmopolitanism” is, so to speak, earthly in nature.

In a sense, “cosmopolitans” are a special type of “gatekeeper” because they control the communications through which new ideas enter the system. “Cosmopolitans” at the top level are characterized by business trips, reading correspondence coming from the external environment, participation in national and international meetings and organizations, and significant freedom in choosing their place of work. Their examples include university professors, sales agents, ministers, etc.

The “cosmopolitanism” of some individuals is a resource of the system because they allow the organization to interact with the external environment. The ability to anticipate changes in the environment is important for the survival of any system. Some positions in the organization, such as market analysts, human relations specialists, research and development scientists, sales managers, etc., provide opportunities for greater contact with the environment. As a result, these rather than other individuals are more likely to be “cosmopolitan.”

In general, the difference between the described communication roles can be represented through two parameters: the coverage of information recipients and the amount of information transmitted (Table 2).

table 2

Classification of communication roles

3. What are the distinctive characteristics of informal communication?

Informal communications arise in the process of human communication based on various interests: everyday, psychological, situational. These are communications that are not recorded in any organizational documents or official requirements. Such communications exist in any organization; they play an important role in human activity and determine the socio-psychological atmosphere of work. The main advantage of such oral communications is the ability to quickly and completely exchange information. You can ask questions and even get answers to them. Speakers are involved in direct contact with listeners and must ensure that they are understood.

Informal communications are those contacts that occur outside and in addition to formal communication channels. They include a number of varieties:

1) informal contacts between ordinary members of the organization;

2) informal connections between the manager and subordinates;

3) informal external communication connections between the leader and the environment (the phenomenon of “great connections” of the leader).

A special role among all informal communication contacts belongs to such a variety as rumors, which predominantly create the social microenvironment of the organization. They influence public opinion, the activities of organization members, their status and reputation. There is a persistent prejudice about the unreliability of this kind of communicative phenomenon, which is rumors. However, special studies show that in reality they are true and fair in almost 80% of cases, and with regard to the state of affairs within the organization, this figure reaches 99%. The level of accuracy may not be as high when it comes to personal or highly emotional information. Moreover, regardless of accuracy, everything points to the influence of rumors, whether their impact is positive or negative.

Typical information transmitted through rumor channels:

• upcoming layoffs of production workers;
• new penalties for lateness;
• changes in the structure of the organization;
• upcoming moves and promotions;
• a detailed account of an argument between two executives at a recent sales meeting;
• who dates whom after work.

4. What is the role of communication in management?

The role of communication in organization management. The formation of communication networks and the creation of conditions for the successful functioning of communications in an organization constitute one of the most important management tasks. It is no coincidence that German scientists W. Siegert and L. Lang note: “The bread of the people of an organization is information and communications. If information flows within an enterprise and communications with the outside world are disrupted, the very existence of this enterprise is threatened. Information alone is not enough. Only when it is appropriately converted and processed, i.e. when communication connections arise, the existence and effective operation of the organization is ensured.”

Comparison of the role of communications in organizations in various scientific concepts

communication is:

a) satisfaction of communication partners

b) a friendly atmosphere of communication

c) the desire of the parties to continue communications

d) the proximity of the meaning of the received message to the meaning of the sent message

e) accuracy of wording.

3. The specific property of information is as follows:

1. possibility of multi-purpose use;

8. ability to accumulate;

9. ability to reflect any events, facts;

10. ability to lose use value;

11. all answers are correct;

12. the correct answer is not given

4. What is meant by the concept of “coding”?

─ selection of shipping method information

─ choosing a way to designate information content

─ choice between verbal and non-verbal methods of transmitting information

5. Your subordinate did not complete your task the way you wanted. You think there has been a breakdown in the communication process, which consists of a series of specific steps. What they include:

a) perception of the message;

b) definition of the task;

c) control of execution;

d) transmission channel

6. What is “noise” in the communication process?

1 technical interference in the selected communication channel

6 everything that can affect the distortion of information

7. What causes a semantic barrier?

· difference in communication channels between the sender and recipient of information

· differences in life experience, education, values, attitudes between the sender and recipient of information

8. What type of communication can an order be classified as?
from the workshop manager to the site manager?

1 uplink

2 horizontal communication

3 downward communication

9. Which of the following refers to the main types of nonverbal communication:

b) weather;

c) letter

10. What type of communication networks does the “wheel” option belong to?

1 centralized

5 decentralized

11. The main types of communication networks can be represented in the form:

1 “chain”;

9 herringbone

10 “spinner”;

11 “wheel”;

12 "matryoshka"

12. The main types of conflicts include:

1 goal conflict

6 resource conflict

7 conflict of views on solving a problem

8 personal conflict

9 sensory conflict

13. What are the structural ways to resolve conflicts?

1. reaching a compromise

9. integration mechanisms

10. coercion

14. Avoidance is the optimal way to manage conflict:

15. What may be the functional consequences of conflicts in
organizations?

1. increasing labor productivity, reducing staff turnover

10. identifying existing organizational problems

11. more effective decision making in the organization

12. all answers are correct

16. Which of the following conflict resolution styles benefits both parties:

a) avoiding conflict;

b) compromise;

c) cooperation;

d) enter into the position of the other side

17. Which of the following levels of organizational conflict is best managed using structural methods:

a) interpersonal;

b) intragroup;

c) intra-organizational;

d) extra-organizational

15. Workplace stress requires:

a) elimination

b) maintaining

c) visiting a doctor

d) job changes

e) regulation

16. The decision-making process begins with:

a) mission statement of the enterprise

b) setting management goals

c) identifying the problem

d) determining the person responsible for making decisions

e) identification of the functional area where the decision is made.

17. What characterizes decision making at the organizational level:

a) taking the risk;

b) making a decision at a certain point;

c) the presence of individual skills;

d) group process management

18. Is making a management decision always a choice of an alternative and a refusal to do something?

3. sometimes;

19. What solutions are used in case of unstructured problems in the organization:

a) programmable;

b) effective;

c) non-programmable;

d) complex

20. Linear programming is used for:

a) building a “strategic line” of development

b) streamlining the distribution of line and staff powers

c) organizing horizontal interactions in project management

d) analysis of programs in matrix structures

e) optimal distribution of limited resources.

21. What are the limitations of quantitative decision-making methods?

1. difficulty in translating the parameters necessary for making a decision, V measured indicators.

16. lack of necessary indicators

17. lack of necessary measurement methods

22. Which decision-making method can be considered as
informal?

Brainstorm

Payment matrix

Linear programming

Power. Leadership.

1. Power is:

1. A person’s real ability to influence the behavior of other people.

9. The right to dispose of resources in management processes.

10. Social and psychological characteristics that determine managerial leadership.

11. Organization of management with all the attributes of its manifestation - powers, discipline, responsibility, duties.

12. Correspondence and combination of the need for management and the possibilities for its implementation.

2. Leadership is:

· Manager's behavior in a conflict situation.

· The group's need for informal management.

· Ability to manage based on informal relationships.

· Focus on strategic issues.

3. In the behavior of the organization, informal leadership plays the following role:

1 Unites and integrates the team.

3 Determines the behavior of the organization.

4 Defuses conflict situations.

5 Improves management efficiency.

4. The group that makes up the personal basis of power includes the following sources of power:

1. power of example

2. power of connections

3. coercion

4. power of information

5. Expert power

5. The group that makes up the organizational basis of power includes the following sources of power:

power over resources

· right to power

The degree of effectiveness of interpersonal communication is determined by the results of updating two main socially significant functions - interaction and influence. These results depend on three main conditions that determine the nature of verbal communication: a) the type of communicative individuals, 6) the perception of semantic and evaluative information and c) targeted influence on each other. For the effectiveness of interpersonal communication, the most optimal options for these conditions are the following: a) compatibility partners as communicative individuals, b) adequate perception semantic and evaluative information, c) influence through persuasion.

Partner compatibility as communicative personalities presupposes compatibility in all three parameters. The presence of communication needs, even with differences in communication settings, contributes to the establishment of contact, which is important for the initial stage of communication. Both verbal and non-verbal means can serve as a signal for contact. It is very important here that their actualization corresponds to accepted social norms of speech behavior. This greatly facilitates speech interaction. The greatest role here is played by the compatibility of cognitive parameters, which are organized in a certain cognitive space in the form of blocks of identification, reflection, knowledge about verbal and non-verbal means of communication, etc. Despite the fact that for each individual the volume of these blocks and their structure are different, since they are formed based not only on social cognitive experience, but also on personal experience, despite the fact that they depend on the characteristics of the functioning of the cerebral hemispheres, which are distinguished by asymmetry, the presence of ready-made blocks allows you to operate with them

sufficient efficiency to perceive and evaluate information and formulate your reaction.

It is noted that already at the initial stage of interpersonal communication, both partners, relying on their cognitive experience, solve several problems simultaneously: 1) What do I think about myself - who am I? 2) What do I think about my partner - who is he? 3) What do I think about how my partner thinks about me? 4) What does your partner think about himself? 5) What does my partner think about me? 6) What does my partner think about how I imagine him. The blocks of identification, self-knowledge, reflection, forecasting the development of the partner’s image are involved here - everything that helps<настроиться>on interpersonal communication.

The functional parameter also plays a significant role in the successful actualization of the function of speech interaction, but is not decisive, except in cases where a gross violation of the accepted norms of social differentiation and situational variability of communicative means is allowed.

Perception in the context of socio-psychological research, it is interpreted as the understanding and assessment of a person by a person; and not only and not so much his qualities, but his relationships with other people. The most studied mechanisms of interpersonal perception are: a) identification - understanding another person by identifying oneself with him; b) reflection - understanding another through thinking for him; c) empathy - understanding another person through emotional empathy; d) stereotyping - the perception and assessment of another by transferring to him the generally accepted characteristics of a social group or its representative.

In the context of interpersonal communication, perception is, first of all, a complex process of receiving and processing semantic and evaluative information, a necessary condition for updating interpersonal communication. The effectiveness of interpersonal communication depends on the degree adequacy of semantic perception, since this is related to the correct interpretation of information, the partner’s communicative attitude and prediction of subsequent stages of communication.

Among the objective factors that determine perception, the features of a speech message (statement, discourse) are noted, which may differ in type (description, narration, argumentation, etc.), in structure (sequence of statements - clarifying, generalizing, etc.) or on the composition of the discourse (introduction, main part, conclusion). The constancy of perception is also important - its relative independence from accompanying situational factors.

Subjective factors include functional features of the perception process, determined by the cognitive characteristics of a person: the meaningfulness of perception, the discreteness of this process, the conditionality of perception by a person’s past experience, the anticipatory nature of perception. The ability to anticipate, as studies by Russian psychologists have shown, is probabilistic in nature and is one of the most important characteristics of the perception process. A detailed and reasoned analysis of the objective and subjective factors that determine speech perception is given in the work of the famous psychologist I.A. Zimnya (see. Winter IL. 1990).

Some subjective factors that make it difficult to adequately perceive are associated with underestimation or ignorance of one’s own<Я>. Such factors include, in particular:

Inability to separate the main from the secondary;

Tendency to pay attention to external details of speech behavior;

Dependence on stereotypical ideas and prejudices;

The erroneous idea that this behavior of a partner is his constant characteristic;

Ignorance of the circumstances that determine the partner’s speech behavior (including emotional state);

Concentrating primarily on negative things;

The dependence of the correct assessment on the personal relationship with the partner;

Lack of a sense of humor.

Learn to observe, notice even minor details;

Learn to listen to your partner;

Determine what is the best indicator of understanding for you - gaze, gesture, facial expression, clothing, accent, tone or words, speech formulas;

Record your inaccuracies in perception;

Be aware of how you are perceived;

Develop orientation towards the interlocutor - show empathy, interest in the partner as a person (see. Beebye. 1996. R. 87-90). Practical work on the adequacy of perception helps to reduce conflict situations and maintain optimal interpersonal relationships in various social groups and thereby contributes to the integration of society.

Influence through persuasion taking place in the context of interpersonal communication is an even more complex process, the mechanisms of which have not been studied in depth. Impact as a socially significant function of communication is updated at all levels of communication in accordance with their specifics. Methods and particular techniques of influence vary in form. They can be explicit and implicit, direct and indirect, intentional and unintentional, realized in oral and written forms of speech activity. The ultimate goal of speech influence is understood as a certain organization of the activity of the partner - the object of influence (recipient). According to AALeontyev,<воздействуя на реципиента, мы стремимся <спровоцировать>find his behavior in the direction we need in the system of his activities<слабые точки>, identify the factors that control it and selectively influence them> (Leontyev AL. 1974. P. 36). The above dialogue between a dean and an engineer clearly illustrates this definition. In this situation, the chosen method of influence is determined by the ultimate goal of one of them - to blackmail the other.

At the verbal and nonverbal levels of communication, various methods of influence can be used - an order, a command, a warning or regulatory sign, verbal persuasion. Persuasion is the most complex way of verbal influence on the consciousness of an individual through appealing to his own critical understanding of information and stimulating reflection. As a method of speech influence, persuasion is widely used in interpersonal, intragroup and mass communication. It is based on principles that are common to these types of communication.

Three principles as components of belief, substantiated by Aristotle: Greek. -<характер лица или явления>; Greek -<душевное переживание и эмоциональный настрой>and Greek 16 O8 -<слово, смысл>, have stood the test of time. Their essence has not changed, and in modern theories only the interpretation of their characteristics varies. IN epic stable characteristics of the individual are included that create a feeling of security (trust, sincerity, integrity of nature, etc.). Pathos, understood as the mental experience of an individual, his emotional mood, includes such characteristics as prudence, nobility, restraint, generosity, etc. Logos associated with the intellectual qualities of the individual, which play a large role in meaning formation and vary depending on the topic and place of conversation (Greek 1oro1 -<место>).

Belief - a complex process burdened with ethical standards, objectivity in assessing social realities, factors of reliability and trust, empathy and, of course, the ability to effectively use the communication code. Most researchers emphasize the multi-stage process of persuasion, highlighting the following stages: 1) attracting the recipient’s attention, 2) achieving understanding, comprehension, 3) acceptance, or the so-called internal appropriation (interiorization - from Lat. -<внутренний>) information, argument, evidence, etc., 4) maintaining attention, 5) action as a result. The most important stage is considered to be the third, when arguments or arguments as elements of an external structure are assimilated by the recipient as internal, their own. This stage is important primarily in the sociological aspect of the persuasion process, since as a result of an intense struggle in comprehending different opinions, the recipient experiences a certain shift in his assessment of actions and motives, and he makes a conscious choice.

In terms of updating persuasion, the concept of A. ALeontyev deserves attention, according to which one should distinguish between influence through awareness and influence through persuasion itself (Leontyev A.A. 1974. pp. 37-38). We can change the recipient’s attitude towards the phenomena of the surrounding reality by providing him with completely new information about facts or phenomena unknown to him, for example, about cases of prolonging human life by slowing down all “life processes (<сомати>in Tibet). By informing the recipient of new essential information about facts already known to him, for example, about changes in the radiation background in a given region, we also change his perception and attitude towards the surrounding reality. In both cases, impact is primarily through awareness.

Actually, persuasion, as AALeontyev believes, occurs in the case when we, without burdening the recipient with new knowledge and thoughts about new information, influence him directly and directly - we present already known facts and phenomena in a completely new interpretation, using a new system of arguments and arguments, that is, we convince him of the advisability of a new approach to assessing the surrounding reality, for example, how you can rationally reorganize your working day. However, this method of influence requires a certain knowledge of the recipient’s cognitive level in order to accurately hit it.<смысловое поле>and a favorable emotional zone. To do this, it is necessary to think in advance about the structure of the discourse in all three parameters (semantic or thematic field, tonality, channels of transmission and perception of information). This method, or rather the preparation for its implementation, is used mainly in mass communication. In interpersonal communication, which is characterized by dynamism, many situational variables, and immediate feedback, improvisation occupies a significant place - after all, the process of persuasion allows not only one-sided argumentation, but also counter-argumentation on both sides, which may contain new information.

A number of conditions that contribute to influence by persuasion are common to interpersonal and mass communication, for example:

Attractiveness and communicative competence of the persuader: in this case, there is a peculiar transfer of the assessment of the personality as a source of information to the assessment of the information itself in terms of its truth, reliability (primary perception, as proven, is more stable);

Instilling confidence, which is determined by the moral character of the persuader, his professional competence, and friendly attitude towards the recipient;

The use of a stereotype, which is associated with the individual’s desire to identify his own<Я>;

The use of repetitions, comparisons, contrasts and analogies in speech, as this creates a perspective for the recipient to reason.

For the effectiveness of persuasion in interpersonal communication, the ethical aspect is of particular importance. American researcher J. Condon considers the most significant features of the ethical aspect of interpersonal communication to be: sincerity, social compatibility, accuracy of expressions that exclude deception or distortion of information, consistency of words and actions, trust, and inadmissibility of interruption of communication. Another American specialist, Ch. Larson, comments on these provisions in the form of recommendations:

Be open about your feelings and beliefs;

In societies that value interaction over individualism, it is important to achieve social harmony;

Be accurate when conveying information, do not distort the meaning;

Avoid deliberate deception, it is unethical;

Agree on the meaning of verbal and non-verbal means of communication so that they do not contradict each other;

Don't cut your partner off without listening to him completely. .

To successfully update communication in small groups, a number of practical recommendations have also been developed:

Group members should be able to express their own judgments, this encourages the development of their potential abilities; and

Strong arguments and valuable suggestions should be especially encouraged;

Criticism of ideas and proposals should not be transferred to individuals;

When presenting information for group discussion, it is necessary to strive for accuracy and objectivity;

The opinions of other groups should also be respected if they contain valuable suggestions and practical recommendations.

There are also recommendations regarding private persuasion techniques that are designed to use the psychological characteristics or emotional state of the recipient for their own purposes. So, for example, in order to get a positive response from the recipient, it is recommended to construct your discourse in such a way that it provokes at least

at least three times a positive answer. This lulls the recipient’s vigilance and resistance - the fourth time he will most likely respond<да>. It is not recommended to start a question with If(will you be able to finish the work?), it’s better to ask When(will you be able to finish the work?). It is allowed to answer a question with a question if there is a need to more carefully think through the answer on the merits.

It has been experimentally proven that when persuasion is most<сильными>are the primary and final arguments, especially the latter. According to some studies, this pattern also depends on the degree of importance of the topic under discussion for the recipient. When discussing an extraordinary, debatable topic, he focuses more on the primary argument; when discussing an uninteresting topic, he focuses more on the final argument. It is also important to observe that the party with more<сильным>argument, has an advantage over the other side. This advantage lies in the ability to repeat<сильный>argument several times in different versions (Sooreg M. 1996. R. 187).

As we see, the actualization of beliefs in interpersonal communication is a complex process inextricably linked with the process of perception. Both of these processes are caused by the simultaneous action of sociological, psychological, ethical, emotional and communicative factors themselves.

Undoubtedly, scientific and technological progress has largely changed the way people live, expanding their communication capabilities. But at the same time, one cannot help but admit that the contacts themselves have become more short-term and therefore superficial. Mass communication has proven to be a strong competitor to interpersonal communication. But ultimately, the success of interpersonal communication will be determined by the parameters of individuals as communicative individuals. It is also encouraging that the communicative spheres in which interpersonal communication is updated are expanding (including with the help of technical means). This is a very dynamic type of communication, focused on spoken language, in which the individual is most fully revealed as a communicative personality.

Questions for self-control

1. What approaches exist to justifying types of communication?

2. What are the features of interpersonal communication?

3. What components stand out" & structural, descriptive and functional-explanatory models of interpersonal communication? What are their advantages and disadvantages?

4. How do motivational theories explain the essence and functions of interpersonal communication?

5. How are the motives and goals of communication understood in the theory of speech activity?

6. What are the socially significant functions of interpersonal communication?

7. What is the degree of structure in various forms of interpersonal communication?

8. What are the features of interpersonal communication in small groups?

9. What conditions ensure the effectiveness of interpersonal communication?

10. How does the compatibility of communicants affect the success of interpersonal communication?

11. How is the process of perception and its role in interpersonal communication understood?

12. What are the methods of influence in interpersonal communication?

13. What is persuasion as a method of influence?

14. What are the stages of the persuasion process?

16. What is the role of the ethical factor in the process of persuasion?

Krysin L.P. On human speech behavior in small social communities (posing the question) // Language and personality / Rep. ed. D.N. Shmelev. M., 1989.

, Additional literature

Leontyev A.N. Needs, motives and emotions. M.: Publishing house Mosk. University, 1971.

Smelser N. Sociology. Per. from English M.: Phoenix, 1994.

Uzilevsky G.Ya. Interaction of natural and artificial languages ​​in modern linguistic processors. M.: ADD, 1996.

Main literature

Tarasov E.F. Speech influence: methodology and theory//Optimization of speech influence. M., 1990.

Winter I.A> Psychological characteristics of understanding a speech message/Lady.

Leontyev A.A. Psycholinguistic problems of mass communication. Communication and verbal communication. Psycholinguistic model of speech influence//Psycholinguistic problems of mass communication. M. 1974. S. 28-49.

Chapter X. MASS COMMUNICATION (THEORETICAL ASPECT)

If we imagine all types of communication in the form of a pyramid, then mass communication is its top, where the interests and expectations of all individuals - members of various social structures - intersect and integrate.

In sociology, mass communication is understood as a socially determined phenomenon, the main function of which is to influence the audience through the content of the transmitted information. For the sociology of communication, this definition is not enough, since it does not take into account an essential factor of mass communication as a process - the mechanism of updating information using communication means. Mass communication, considered as one of the types of communication, is a socially determined phenomenon with the main function of influencing through semantic and evaluative information. Considered as a type of speech activity, mass communication is a socially determined process in which this function is updated with the help of various communication means and channels.

Order writing a unique work

Describe the information criteria for the effectiveness of interpersonal communication in an organization.

What and why is the closest to such effectiveness:
a) a friendly atmosphere of communication,
b) the desire of the parties to continue communications,
c) the proximity of the meaning of the received message to the meaning of the sent message.

The information criterion for the effectiveness of interpersonal communication is:

c) the proximity of the meaning of the received message to the meaning of the sent message

The remaining answers either relate to psychological rather than informational criteria, or describe the intentions, or determine the actions of one party, which does not guarantee the quality of information perception by the other party.

1.
How can nonverbal communication contribute to the effectiveness of verbal communication?

one of the most mysterious and difficult areas of communication to master, since most often they are carried out at the subconscious level. The elements of nonverbal communications include:

Basic types of nonverbal communication - Examples

Body movements - Gestures, facial expressions, eye movements, touches, postures Personal physical qualities - Body structure, weight, height, hair color, body odor, muscles

Use of the environment - The way of using and sensing the external environment, the manner of placing oneself in the environment, distance proximity in communication, a sense of “one’s own” and “alien” territory

Physical environment - Design of the room, furniture and other objects, decoration, cleanliness and neatness, lighting, noise

Time - Being late, arriving early, the tendency to make one wait, the culture of time, the relationship between time and status

Nonverbal components are most closely related to national culture

It should be emphasized that non-verbal components are most closely related to national culture. Therefore, for example, a direct transfer of interpretation, eye contact from European to Japanese culture can lead to serious mistakes and even troubles: in Japanese culture, direct eye contact with an interlocutor is considered a sign of psychological aggression and bad manners, while in most European cultures its absence is condemned .

Example of differences in gesture interpretation

Below are interpretations of essentially the same gesture, familiar to us from childhood - the thumb and index finger form a ring. However, how much its meaning varies depending on the characteristics of the demonstration and the country!

The meaning of the gesture: OK, everything is fine. Distribution: North America and Europe.

The meaning of the gesture: an offensive gesture. Distribution: Germany, Malta, Tunisia, Greece, Türkiye,

Middle East and parts of South America.
The meaning of the gesture: zero. Distribution: Belgium, France, Tunisia.

The meaning of the gesture: money. Distribution: Japan.

The meaning of the gesture: perfection. Distribution: South America.

Meaning of the gesture: What are you talking about? Distribution: Italy.

The meaning of the gesture: justice. Distribution: Italy.

Nonverbal communications in most cases have an unconscious

basis, since they indicate the actual emotions of the participant

communication process and are a reliable indicator of manifested

feelings. Nonverbal information is difficult to manipulate and difficult to hide

in any interpersonal communication. This largely determines how

the words will be interpreted.

A person who is serious about improving his communication skills must master the art of managing his nonverbal signals and reading the signals of his interlocutor. This is all the more important since research shows that nonverbal elements make up more than half of all elements in interpersonal communication.

2. What are some ways to improve organizational communications?

Organizational communications include the exchange of information within an organization between its divisions.

Participants in such communications form a communication network - connecting organizational units using communication flows. The main task of organizational communications is not the transmission of individual symbols or a specific message, but the formation and improvement of information flows.

Communication network organization includes horizontal, vertical and diagonal connections. Vertical connections are established between the leader and the performers. An example of such relationships is the chain of command (top-down) and the provision of reporting information (bottom-up). Horizontal communications exist between divisions of an organization or its members belonging to the same level of the organizational structure. Diagonal communications are connections with units at other levels of the organization that are not related to vertical connections.

Groups of equal size may have different types of communication networks. When formal, centralized Typically, all communications are carried out through the group leader. This ensures high speed and accuracy of transmission, good organization and clearly defined leadership. However, at the same time, the manager “suppresses” the initiative of the performers. At maximum decentralized Typically, all group members have an equal number of communication links. This allows you to achieve a good microclimate in the team. But communications with this type of network are characterized by slow speed, low accuracy, poor organization, and lack of leadership.

The centralized type of communications is more effective when solving relatively simple, well-structured problems. When solving complex problems that require taking into account the opinions of all group members, it is more effective to turn to decentralized, or open, communications.

The main problems in organizational communications are related to the ineffective structure of the organization. There are two possible poles here.

First the pole is represented by a situation where the organizational structure is overextended. At the same time, the number of control levels unreasonably increases, and a very long chain of commands is formed. Decomposition of the main goals of the organization, their specification for individual levels of management and divisions of the organization complicates communications. There may be unintentional distortion of reporting information due to its vertical movement. The presence of conflicts makes deliberate distortion of information very likely and difficult to eliminate.

Second the pole can be represented by a situation where the organizational structure is unreasonably flat. Violation of the norm of controllability can lead to information overload, especially at the highest level of management.

For improvement organizational communications is necessary:

Regulate information flows based on an accurate assessment of information needs (your own and your subordinates);

Improve the feedback system - in particular for collecting, recording and using staff suggestions;

Use management activities for more effective information exchange;

Use additional sources of information (newsletters, videos, newspapers) explaining the activities of the organization.

6. What are the different communication styles and roles? Try to describe the most effective communication style when contacting customers.

Communication style is the way in which an individual prefers

build communication interaction with others. There are many different

styles used by people in interpersonal communication, as well as many

approaches to defining these styles. Knowing styles helps determine what

how to behave and what can be expected from behavior associated with a certain

style.

The basis for measuring interpersonal communication can be taken as follows:

variables such as openness in communication and adequacy of feedback.

The first dimension involves the degree to which one opens or reveals oneself in communication.

for others in order to obtain a response from them, especially their reaction,

showing how they perceive us and our actions. Second dimension

indicates the extent to which people share their thoughts and

feelings about them. Having built a matrix on this basis, where vertically there will be

the first dimension is laid aside, and the second one horizontally, five can be distinguished

styles of interpersonal communication (Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Communication styles.

The communication style of individuals in the first quadrant can be defined as

self discovery. This style is characterized by a high degree of self-openness

different, but low level of feedback from the individual using

this style. Self-discovery in this case is measured in the range from the average

to the maximum. The individual goes for it, thereby concentrating attention on

yourself in order to provoke a reaction from others to your behavior. Unfortunately, this

style suffers from the fact that the reaction of others is often left without adequate

response or feedback from the individual calling it. Taking

the reaction of others to one's behavior is taken to heart when using this style

the individual may exhibit unbridled emotions that do little to

establishing effective relationships between communicating parties.

The communication style of an individual in the second quadrant is defined as

self-realization and is characterized by both maximum openness and

maximum feedback. Under ideal conditions this style is

desirable, but situational factors (organizational policies, differences in

status, etc.) can prompt an individual who owns this style to refuse

From him.

The communication style in the third quadrant is characterized by withdrawing into oneself,

those. both a low level of openness and a low level of feedback.

In this case, the individual, as it were, isolates himself, not allowing others to know him.

This style is often used by “introverts” - people with a tendency to pay more attention

your mind inside yourself. The extreme manifestation of this style is associated with

hiding your ideas, opinions, dispositions and feelings towards others.

Communication style in the fourth quadrant is associated with protecting oneself and how

visible from the matrix, characterized by a low level of openness, but high

level of feedback. It is widely used to get to know better

others or to evaluate them more correctly. Typically, individuals using this

style, little Open to others, but like to discuss others. They love to listen

about themselves, but do not like to discuss their qualities, especially bad ones, with others.

In the middle of the matrix are individuals who “sell” themselves if others

do the same. This style is called “trading for yourself” and

characterized by moderate openness and feedback exchanged in

process of interpersonal communication.

It would be wrong to think that any one of the named communication

styles is the most desirable. However, the practice of effective

communication indicates that the style in which an individual realizes himself

more desirable and used in more situations. Owning one

style is a real asset. Regarding the use of others

styles, it is important to understand the problems of effective feedback, the ability to reveal

yourself and the ability to listen to others.

Communication roles.

Members of an organization interact with each other while performing different functions. Communication roles are the functions performed by members of an organization in the process of transmitting information. Some individuals are like “watchmen”: they control the input flow of messages. Others occupy key positions linking groups. They are called “connected”. The main difference between the third group of people is that they have an informal decisive influence on the behavior of others; these are “opinion leaders” (informal leaders). The fourth group - “cosmopolitans” - are like “windows to the world” of the organization, since they connect the system with the external environment. Figure 18 depicts the main communication roles of individuals.

Fig. 18. Communication roles of individuals

1- “watchman”; 2 - “connected”; 3 - “opinion leader”; 4 - “cosmopolitan”

“Watchman” is an individual who occupies a place in the structure that allows him to regulate the flow of messages passing through a given channel. The function of the “watchman” is similar to that of a valve. If you've ever tried to urgently meet with your boss and his secretary said he was “at a conference,” you'll understand what a “gatekeeper” is. Secretaries, of course, are just one type of “watchman.” Any individual in any communication network, formal or informal, who inserts himself into the chain of communication is a gatekeeper. For example, in the communication chain A® B®C, individual B plays the role of a “watchman”. Likewise, the individual occupying the position through which messages pass is, to a certain extent, a “gatekeeper.” For example, in the three-level structure shown in Fig. 19, individual B performs the functions of a “watchman”.

Fig. 19. Formal communication role of the “watchman”

(individual B in a group with a three-level organizational structure)

One of the “watchdog” functions is to reduce information overload. “Watchman” filters message flows, weeds out unimportant messages and transmits more important ones, helps reduce information overload without interfering with the normal functioning of the organization.

T. Allen at the Sloan School of Business at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (USA) conducted a series of studies on the behavior of “gatekeeper” scientists and sociometrically determined the flow of messages between them. Individuals, called “technological gatekeepers” by T. Allen, controlled the flow of technical and scientific communications between scientists. They tended to establish contacts with many other scientists both outside and within the laboratory. Such people are able to operate within the same system, receive messages, process information and transmit it to their colleagues in written form so that they can use it.

Today there is a need to expand research into the processes of regulating communications in organizations, which are very poorly developed. It is necessary to find out which positions in groups correspond to the persons performing the main “guard” functions, and why. Do the roles of formal “guardians” coincide and to what extent? How effective are “watchmen” in controlling information flows in terms of reducing overloads (without distortion and loss of important information)? What criteria do gatekeepers use when regulating message flows?

A “connector” (sometimes called a “tie point”) is an individual who connects on an interpersonal basis two or more groups in a system without belonging to any of them (certain individuals play a quasi-connective role, being members of a particular group, they are called “bridges” "). “Messengers” are thus located at the intersections of information flows in the organization. “Communicators” are called the cement that holds together the structural “bricks” of the organization: when the “connections” are removed, the system begins to fall apart into isolated groups.

Liaisons are important for transmitting messages between parts of the organization. With the loss of the “liaison,” the unity of the organization is destroyed, and his role is fundamentally important. From a dynamic perspective, the performance of such a role and its indispensability in networks influence the functioning of the organization. If the person in the liaison role is the weak link, the organization is in great trouble. If it is effective, its actions help speed up the flow of information throughout the organization. Due to their great importance, “connectors” have been the subject of numerous studies. Jacobson and Seashore first noted that some individuals function as “liaisons” between groups and are characterized by a large number of frequent, reciprocal and important contacts that cross the structure of the contacting groups. “Messengers” actively participate in the communication system, but it is very difficult to single them out within a single subgroup.

Jacobson and Seashore, having discovered the “connectors,” did not then search for them. The purpose of their study was to find sociometric indicators of group membership. But having identified the groups, they were convinced that “connections” between the groups existed throughout the network. When “connected” people were removed, the network split into unconnected groups.

In subsequent studies, attention was focused on identifying the number of “connected people” in organizations, the stability of connections and their dependence on the content of transmitted messages, as well as on the personal and communication characteristics and properties of “connected people”.

When analyzing organizations, it usually turns out that many senior managers are “liaisons.”

In a study of 142 faculty members at the University of Michigan conducted by Schwartz in 1968, 22 “connectors” (15%) were identified. They connected 29 working groups of varying sizes. In most studies, between 5 and 20% of organizational members were “liaisons.” The exact number and percentage of contacts in the network depends on factors such as the nature of the survey question (compare: “Who do you talk to for work?” and “How often do you contact each person on the list?”), and also on the type of organizational task being solved (for example, whether cooperation or independence of workers is required to complete it).

However, the recent trend in research on “connectors” is relegating the question of their number in an organization to the background. Emend argues that it is more appropriate to view each individual in the system as “connected.” Therefore, he measured the degree of performance of the “connector” function and the correlation of this variable with others. Points on the scale of this variable are awarded to the respondent depending on the extent to which he ensures the coherence of the entire communication network in the organization.

The role of the “liaison” is of great practical importance, since the “liaison” is, of course, the central figure ensuring the effective functioning of the organization’s interpersonal network. “Messengers” occupy strategic positions in organizations. They can either speed up informal messaging or be a bottleneck. Liaison roles seem to have to be formally introduced into organizations if they do not emerge spontaneously.

An “opinion leader” is a person capable of exerting a fairly noticeable informal influence on the attitudes or behavior of other individuals in the desired direction. Thus, the leaders
opinions” are more informal than formal leaders. The concept of “opinion leader” was first introduced by P. Lazarsfeld as part of a model in which it was assumed that flows of messages move from a source through media channels to “opinion leaders” who transmit these messages to those whom they see fit, for example, their supporters .

Opinion leaders gain a position of influence by providing valuable, albeit rare, services to their organization. Following the organizational norms of an “opinion leader” is a valuable service to the organization because he serves as a living example of correct behavior for his followers.

In general, “opinion leaders” have great access to external sources of information, and their main function is to provide contacts for the group with the relevant part of its external environment.

Studying “opinion leaders” in a variety of situations allows us to identify the following common features: more frequent communication with external competent sources of information; their greater accessibility to followers; greater adherence to the norms of the groups they lead.

Like “watchmen”, and possibly “messengers”, “opinion leaders” can be grouped based on the topic of the messages being transmitted.

In most organizations, opinion leadership is not limited to senior managers. The Hawthorne studies (see Unit 1) clearly showed that informal leaders have a very strong influence on the productivity of work group members, although from a hierarchical point of view these leaders occupied the same positions as ordinary workers.

“Cosmopolitan” is an individual who interacts with the external environment of the system more often than others. To the extent that any organization is open, it must have at least a few “cosmopolitans.” In most systems, “cosmopolitans” are located at the top and bottom of the hierarchical ladder. Executives, through frequent business travel and other contacts with external organizations, are also able to obtain new ideas from external sources. Most of their contacts with the environment lie at the macro level, since they collect information about changes in the external environment without having knowledge of the intricacies of the matter.

Individuals at lower levels of the organizational hierarchy also act in part as “cosmopolitans” because they deal with the operational aspects of environmental changes. Thus, lower-level employees are in direct contact with customers, incoming materials and fuel, and information about production. Their “cosmopolitanism” is, so to speak, earthly in nature.

In a sense, “cosmopolitans” are a special type of “gatekeeper” because they control the communications through which new ideas enter the system. “Cosmopolitans” at the top level are characterized by business trips, reading correspondence coming from the external environment, participation in national and international meetings and organizations, and significant freedom in choosing their place of work. Their examples include university professors, sales agents, ministers, etc.

The “cosmopolitanism” of some individuals is a resource of the system because they allow the organization to interact with the external environment. The ability to anticipate changes in the environment is important for the survival of any system. Some positions in the organization, such as market analysts, human relations specialists, research and development scientists, sales managers, etc., provide opportunities for greater contact with the environment. As a result, these rather than other individuals are more likely to be “cosmopolitan.”

In general, the difference between the described communication roles can be represented through two parameters: the coverage of information recipients and the amount of information transmitted (Table 2).

table 2

Classification of communication roles

3. What are the distinctive characteristics of informal communication?

Informal communications arise in the process of human communication in various ways.

interests: everyday, psychological, situational. These are communications, not

recorded in any organizational documents or official

requirements. Such communications exist in any organization, they play

important role in human activity, determine the socio-psychological

work atmosphere. The main advantage of such oral communications is

opportunities for rapid and complete exchange of information. You can ask questions

even get an answer to them. Speakers are involved in direct contact

with those listening and must ensure that they are understood.

Informal communications- these are those contacts that are realized outside and in addition to formal communication channels. These include a number of varieties:

1) informal contacts between ordinary members of the organization;

2) informal connections between the manager and subordinates;

3) informal external communication connections between the leader and the environment (the phenomenon of “great connections” of the leader).

A special role among all informal communication contacts belongs to such a variety as rumors, which predominantly create the social microenvironment of the organization. They influence public opinion, the activities of organization members, their status and reputation. There is a persistent prejudice about the unreliability of this kind of communicative phenomenon, which is rumors. However, special studies show that in reality they are true and fair in almost 80% of cases, and with regard to the state of affairs within the organization, this figure reaches 99%. The level of accuracy may not be as high when it comes to personal or highly emotional information. Moreover, regardless of accuracy, everything points to the influence of rumors, whether their impact is positive or negative.

Typical information transmitted through rumor channels:

· upcoming layoffs of production workers;

· new penalties for lateness;

· changes in the structure of the organization;

· upcoming moves and promotions;

· a detailed account of an argument between two executives at a recent sales meeting;

· who dates whom after work.

4. What is the role of communication in management?

The role of communication in organization management. The formation of communication networks and the creation of conditions for the successful functioning of communications in an organization constitute one of the most important management tasks. It is no coincidence that German scientists W. Siegert and L. Lang note: “The bread of the people of an organization is information and communications. If information flows within an enterprise and communications with the outside world are disrupted, the very existence of this enterprise is threatened. Information alone is not enough. Only when it is appropriately converted and processed, i.e. when communication connections arise, the existence and effective operation of the organization is ensured.”

Comparison of the role of communications in organizations in various scientific concepts

Features of interpersonal communication in small groups.

To understand the social significance of interpersonal communication, it is necessary to consider its manifestations in social structures of various types. The fact is that real direct communication in a dyad can be carried out in small groups (formal and informal). Such groups include family, professional team, group of friends, etc.; its optimal size is 10-15 people.

Observations of speech activity in small groups showed that interpersonal communication is characterized by a number of features. The most revealing factor is the factor of speech homogeneity/heterogeneity. Speech homogeneity presupposes the social homogeneity of a group whose members are in close relationships. This proximity is determined by the factor of cohesion, duration and regularity of contacts. In such groups, communicators use words, speech patterns and cliches, often in a humorous or ironic tone that is understandable only to those initiated.

Observations of the speech behavior of individuals in the family shows that a number of words and expressions have an unusual semantic interpretation. This is a family language - a kind of communicative code determined by family customs or tradition.

Another feature of interpersonal communication in small groups is the predominance of evaluative and characterizing words. This is explained by the fact that in a small group, where people are united by common experience and interest, the name of the object in question is not so important as its properties, characteristics and assessment, that is, new information.

The degree of effectiveness of interpersonal communication is determined by the results of updating two main socially significant functions - interaction and influence. These results depend on three main conditions that determine the nature of verbal communication: a) the type of communicative individuals, 6) the perception of semantic and evaluative information and c) targeted influence on each other. For the effectiveness of interpersonal communication, the most optimal options for these conditions are the following: a) compatibility of partners as communicative individuals, b) adequate perception of semantic and evaluative information, c) influence through persuasion.

According to experts , The effectiveness of interpersonal communication depends primarily on how its inherent functions of interaction and influence are implemented and what their results are. In turn, these results depend on three main conditions that determine the nature of verbal communication:

a) type of communicative personalities,

6) perception of semantic and evaluative information and

c) purposeful influence on each other.

For the effectiveness of interpersonal communication, the best options for these conditions are the following:

Ø compatibility of partners as communicative personalities,

Ø adequate perception of semantic and evaluative information,

Ø influence through persuasion.

Compatibility of partners as communicative personalities presupposes compatibility in all three parameters. The presence of communication needs, even with differences in communication settings, contributes to the establishment of contact, which is important for the initial stage of communication. Both verbal and non-verbal means can serve as a signal for contact. It is very important here that their actualization corresponds to accepted social norms of speech behavior. This greatly facilitates speech interaction.

It is noted that already at the initial stage of interpersonal communication, both partners, relying on their cognitive experience, solve several problems simultaneously:

1) What do I think about myself - who am I?

2) What do I think about my partner - who is he?

3) What do I think about how my partner thinks about me?

4) What does your partner think about himself?

5) What does my partner think about me?

6) What does my partner think about how I imagine him.

The blocks of identification, self-knowledge, reflection, forecasting the development of the partner’s image are involved here - everything that helps to tune in to interpersonal communication.

Perception in the context of socio-psychological research is interpreted as the understanding and assessment of a person by a person; and not only and not so much his qualities, but his relationships with other people. The most studied mechanisms of interpersonal perception are:

Ø identification - understanding another person by identifying oneself with him;

Ø reflection - understanding another through thinking for him;

Ø empathy - understanding another person through emotional empathy;

Ø stereotyping - the perception and assessment of another by transferring onto him the generally accepted characteristics of a social group or its representative.

A necessary condition and the most important factor in the effectiveness of interpersonal communication is perception. This is a complex process of receiving and processing semantic and evaluative information. The effectiveness of interpersonal communication depends on the degree of adequacy of semantic perception, since this is related to the correct interpretation of information, the communicative attitude of the partner and the prediction of subsequent stages of communication.

Among the objective factors that determine perception, the features of a speech message (statement, discourse) are noted, which may differ in type (description, narration, argumentation, etc.), in structure (sequence of statements - clarifying, generalizing, etc.) or on the composition of the discourse (introduction, main part, conclusion). The constancy of perception is also important - its relative independence from accompanying situational factors.

Subjective factors include functional features of the perception process, determined by the cognitive characteristics of a person: the meaningfulness of perception, the discreteness of this process, the conditionality of perception by a person’s past experience, the anticipatory nature of perception. The ability to anticipate, as studies by Russian psychologists have shown, is probabilistic in nature and is one of the most important characteristics of the perception process.

Some subjective factors that make it difficult to adequately perceive are associated with underestimation or ignorance of one’s own self. These factors, in particular, include:

Ø inability to separate the main from the secondary;

Ø tendency to pay attention to external details of speech behavior;

Ø dependence on stereotypical ideas and prejudices;

Ø the erroneous idea that this behavior of a partner is his constant characteristic;

Ø ignorance of the circumstances that determine the partner’s speech behavior (including emotional state);

Ø concentration primarily on negative consequences;

Ø dependence of the correct assessment on personal relationships with a partner;

Ø lack of a sense of humor.

· learn to observe, notice even minor details;

· learn to listen to your partner;

· determine what is the best indicator of understanding for you - gaze, gesture, facial expression, clothing, accent, tone or words, speech formulas;

· record your inaccuracies in perception;

· be aware of how you are perceived;

· develop an orientation towards the interlocutor - show empathy, interest in the partner as a person

A number of conditions that contribute to influence by persuasion are common to interpersonal and mass communication, for example:

Ø - attractiveness and communicative competence of the persuader: in this case, there is a peculiar transfer of the assessment of the personality as a source of information to the assessment of the information itself in terms of its truth, reliability (primary perception, as proven, is more stable);

Ø - instilling confidence, which is determined by the moral character of the persuader, his professional competence, and friendly attitude towards the recipient;

Ø - the use of a stereotype, which is associated with the individual’s desire to identify his own self;

Ø - the use of repetitions, comparisons, contrasts and analogies in speech, as this creates a perspective for reasoning in the recipient.

For the effectiveness of persuasion in interpersonal communication, the ethical aspect is of particular importance, but this is a separate issue.

Ultimately, the success of interpersonal communication will be determined by the parameters of individuals as communicative individuals. It is also encouraging that the communicative spheres in which interpersonal communication is updated are expanding (including with the help of technical means). This is a very dynamic type of communication, focused on spoken language, in which the individual is most fully revealed as a communicative personality.