GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ORGANISM Anatomy is the science that studies the structure and shape of the body Physiology is the science that studies the functions of the body, self-regulation, all life directions Age-related physiology is the science that studies the formation and development of the body from fertilization in the egg to the end of life. Methods used in the study of VAFG: 1. Observation 2. Experiment (natural and laboratory) 3. Statistical data processing 4. Cross sections 5. Longitudinal observation ORGANISM AS A WHOLE. There are 7 levels of organization of the body: 1st level - molecular, no difference between living and nonliving; 2nd level - Organelles - the combination of molecules to perform a common function. No difference between living and non-living level 2 - Cell - a combination of organelles to perform a common function. This is the lowest, independently existing level of living things. Level 4 - Tissues are a collection of cells and intercellular substance that are united by their function, general plan of structure and origin. For example: Epithelial Muscular Connective Nervous lymph blood fat cells bone Level 5 - Organs - association of tissue fragments based on the principle of similarity of functions. Level 6 - Organ systems - association of organs to perform a common function. Level 7 - Organismal unification of systems into a single whole CONCEPT OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Development is a process of quantitative and qualitative changes occurring in the human body, leading to increased levels of complexity of the organization and interaction of all its systems. Development includes three main factors: growth, differentiation of organs and tissues, morphogenesis (acquisition by the body of characteristic forms inherent to it). Growth is a quantitative process characterized by a continuous increase in the mass of an organism and accompanied by a change in the number of its cells or their size. AGE PERIODIZATION The human body, like animals, goes through a certain life cycle - “ontogenesis”. Ontogenesis (from the Greek optos - existing, individual; genesis - origin, development) is the process of individual development of an organism from the moment of conception (fertilization of the egg) to death. Part of ontogenesis occurs in utero; this is prenatal ontogenesis. Most of ontogenesis covers the period from birth to death. This is postnatal ontogenesis. In modern science there is no generally accepted classification of periods of growth and development and their age boundaries. A symposium on the problem of age periodization in Moscow (1965), convened by the Institute of Physiology of Children and Adolescents of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, recommended an age periodization scheme that is widely used. Period 1. Intrauterine fetal fetal age M Age 0-8 weeks 9 weeks - 9 months 2. Newborn 1-10 days 3. Infancy 10 days - 1 year 4. Early childhood 1-3 years 5. First childhood 4-7 years 6 Second childhood F 8-12 years 8-11 years 7. Adolescence 13-16 years 12-15 years 8. Adolescence 17-21 years 16-20 years 9. Mature age 1st period 2nd period 10. Old age 11. Senile age 12. Long-livers 22-35 years old 36-60 years old 21-35 years old 36-55 years old 61-74 years old 56-74 years old 75-90 years old 90 years old and older GROWTH AND BODY PROPORTIONS AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT. Factors influencing ontogenesis Hereditary (genetic) environmental (influence of the external environment). intensifies from the newborn period to the second childhood, followed by weakening by 12-15 years. Adaptation to extreme conditions causes such a profound restructuring of the functioning of the entire organism that it cannot but affect the growth processes (menstruation period). A characteristic feature of the growth process of a child’s body is its unevenness and undulation. There are 2 developmental leaps: FIRST SPEAK: The child’s growth is most intense in the first year of life at birth, the child’s height is on average = 50 cm, then by the end of the first year of life it reaches 75-80 cm, i.e. it increases by more than 50% ; body weight triples over the year - at the birth of a child it is on average 3.0-3.2 kg, and by the end of the year - 9.5-10.0 kg. In subsequent years until puberty, the growth rate decreases and the annual weight gain is 1.5-2.0 kg, with an increase in body length by 4.0-5.0 cm. SECOND JUMP: growth is associated with the onset of puberty. Over the course of a year, body length increases by 7-8 and even 10 cm. Moreover, from the age of 11-12, girls are slightly ahead of boys in growth due to the earlier onset of puberty. At the age of 13-14, girls and boys grow almost equally, and from the age of 14-15, boys and young men outstrip girls in height, and this excess of height in men over women persists throughout life. Body weight gradually increases in most people until about 25 years of age, and then remains unchanged. After 60 years, body weight, as a rule, begins to gradually decrease, mainly as a result of atrophic changes in tissues and a decrease in their water content. Body proportions depend on the age and gender of a person. Body length and its age-related changes, as a rule, vary from person to person. The harmony of body proportions is one of the criteria when assessing a person’s health status. Based on the calculation of body proportions in anatomy, three main types of human physique are distinguished: mesomorphic type (normosthenics) includes people whose anatomical features are close to the average parameters of the norm (taking into account age, gender, etc. ). brachymorphic type (hypersthenics), transverse dimensions predominate, muscles are well developed, they are not very tall. The heart is positioned transversely due to the high-standing diaphragm. In hypersthenics, the lungs are shorter and wider, the loops of the small intestine are located predominantly horizontally. dolichomorphic type (asthenics), longitudinal dimensions predominate, have longer limbs, poorly developed muscles and a thin layer of subcutaneous fat, narrow bones. Their diaphragm is located lower, so the lungs are longer, and the heart is located almost vertically. Body proportions also change greatly with age. From the neonatal period to adulthood, body length increases by 3.5 times, body length by 3 times, arm length by 4 times, and leg length by 5 times. A newborn differs from an adult in having relatively short limbs, a large body and a large head. The height of the head of a newborn is 1/4 of the length of the body, in a child of 2 years – 1/5, 6 years – 1/6, 12 years – 1/7 and in adults – 1/8 With age, head growth slows down, and limb growth accelerates . Before the onset of puberty (prepuberty), there are no gender differences in body proportions, but during puberty (puberty), boys' limbs become longer, their torso shorter, and their pelvis narrower than girls'. BIOLOGICAL AND PASSPORT AGE Biological age is the age of development. Passport - calendar or chronological The main criteria of biological age are: 1) maturity, assessed by the degree of development of secondary sexual characteristics; 2) skeletal maturity (the order and timing of skeletal ossification); 3) dental maturity (timing of eruption of primary and permanent teeth, tooth wear); 4) indicators of the maturity of individual physiological systems of the body based on age-related changes in the microstructures of various organs; 1) Level of puberty The first sign of puberty in boys should be considered the beginning of enlargement of the testicles. On average, this occurs at 11-12 years of age; individual variations can normally span a period from 9 and a half to 15 years. events of the pubertal period appear in the following sequence: testicular growth > penis growth > larynx enlargement > pubic hair growth > axillary hair growth > growth spurt (body length growth spurt) > hair growth on the face and body. In girls, the first sign of puberty is: enlargement of the gonads > ovaries > enlargement of the mammary glands > jump in body length growth (it begins at 9-13 years and ends at 12-18 years. ) The most important marker of puberty in pubertal girls is the onset of menstruation (menarche). 2) Bone age, or skeletal maturity, serves as a good indicator of biological age for all periods of ontogenesis, from the uterine to the period of aging. The main indicators of age differentiation are the nuclei of ossification and the formation of stenoses. Timing of ossification of the skeleton of the hand and distal forearm in children and adolescents according to M. A. Zhukovsky and A. I. Bukhman. Points of ossification and synostosis Capitate and hamate bones Distal epiphysis of the radius Epiphyses of the main phalanges and carpal bones Epiphyses of the middle and terminal phalanges Triquetral bone Lunate bone Polygonal large, small and scaphoid bones Distal epiphysis of the ulna Styloid process of the ulna Pisiform bone Sesamoid bones in the first metacarpal phalangeal joint Synostosis in the first metacarpal bone Synostosis in the terminal phalanges Synostosis in the main phalanges Synostosis in the middle phalanges Synostosis in the II-V metacarpal bones Synostosis of the distal epiphysis of the ulna Synostosis of the distal epiphysis of the radius Average term boys 3-4 months 10-12 months 15-18 months 20- 24 months 3- 3.5 years 3.5- 4 years 5.5- 6 years 7- 7.5 years 9.5- 10 years 11- 12 years 13.5- 14 years 15.5- 16 years 16- 16.5 years 16.5- 17 years 16.5- 17 years 16.5- 17 years 17- 18 years 18- 19 years girls 2- 3 months 8- 10 months 10- 12 months 12- 15 months 2- 2.5 years 2.5- 3 years 4- 4.5 years 6- 6.5 years 7.5- 8 years 8.5- 9 years 11- 11.5 years 12.5- 13 years 13, 5- 14 years 14- 15 years 15.5- 16 years 15.5- 16 years 15.5- 16 years 16.5- 17 years 3) Dental age, or dental maturity. The traditional method of determining dental age is based on taking into account the number (currently and sequence of erupted teeth (both primary and permanent) and comparing these data with existing standards. It is used as an indicator of biological age only up to 13-14 years, since primary teeth erupt from 6 months to 2 years, and permanent ones on average from 6 to 13 years (with the exception of the third molars there are practically no gender differences in the eruption of primary teeth, but in the eruption of permanent teeth, as well as in the achievement of bone maturity, girls are ahead of boys, at the same time, the greatest differences are noted in the timing of canine eruption. 4) To some extent, age-related changes in physiological and biochemical parameters can be used as criteria for biological age. However, the information content of these criteria is much lower. Some of them are directly related to changes in the child’s physical parameters. 1. For example, heart rate decreases with age: from 100 beats per minute in a 2-year-old child to 65-70 beats in an adult. This pattern coincides with a general biological phenomenon - more frequent heartbeats with smaller body sizes. 2. Blood pressure continues to rise not only during the entire period of growth, but also throughout life: the systolic pressure of a 5-year-old child is approximately 80-85 mmHg, for an 18-year-old boy - 120 mmHg. 3. The same dependence exists on the respiratory rate: 40-45 per minute in a newborn and on average 12-16 in an adult. 4. The basal metabolic rate is highest in a newborn; over the period from 6 to 20 years it declines rapidly and continues to decline throughout life. According to some data, it increases slightly during puberty. ACCELERATION AND RETARDATION Acceleration is the acceleration of the physical development and functional systems of children and adolescents. The term was proposed in 1935 by E. Koch, originally only denoting the acceleration of the growth of children and adolescents in the 20th century. compared to the 19th century. denotes the acceleration of the physical development of modern children and adolescents in comparison with previous generations. Physical indicators: The body length of newborns has increased over the past 50 years by 2-2.5 cm, weight - by 0.5 kg; In 15-year-olds, body length increased by 6-10 cm, weight - by 3-10 kg. Puberty is 2 years earlier. The duration of growth has shortened: it ends at 16-19 years (50-60 years ago - by 25-26 years). The acceleration of physical development characteristics also stimulated mental development. However, since mental development is also determined by social conditions, we should talk about two types of mental acceleration: a) caused by the early maturation of the morphofunctional basis of the psyche; b) conditioned by social progress. – acceleration of the physical development of individual children and adolescents in certain age groups. Such children make up on average 13-20% of the total number of children of this age. They physically fully mature by 15-17 years of age; Their mental maturation also occurs faster. The biological mechanisms of acceleration are not fully understood. The main possible reasons for it are: 1. The effect of heterosis associated with the widespread migration of the modern population and the increase in the number of mixed marriages. 2. Urbanization of the population and the stimulating influence of urban living conditions on the pace of physical development. 3. An increase in the level of radiation on Earth due to the emergence and development of new technologies. 4. Improving social and socio-hygienic living conditions of the population of industrialized countries. Retardation is a delay in physical development and formation of functional systems. The number of retarded children is 13-20% of the total number in this age group. The biological mechanisms of retardation are not well understood; It is believed that both biological and social factors play a major role here.

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Periods of child development

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Physiology is a science that studies the functions of the body, self-regulation, all areas of life. Age-related physiology is a science that studies the formation and development of the body from fertilization in the egg to the end of life.

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The main tasks of age-related physiology are the study of the characteristics of the functioning of various organs, systems and the body as a whole; identification of exogenous and endogenous factors that determine the functioning of the body at different age periods; determination of objective age criteria (age standards); establishing patterns of individual development.

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In modern science there is no generally accepted classification of periods of growth and development and their age boundaries. A symposium on the problem of age periodization in Moscow (1965), convened by the Institute of Physiology of Children and Adolescents of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, recommended an age periodization scheme that is widely used. Period Age M F 1. Intrauterine embryonic fetus 0-8 weeks 9 weeks - 9 months 2. Newborn 1-10 days 3. Infancy 10 days - 1 year 4. Early childhood 1-3 years 5. First childhood 4-7 years 6. Second childhood 8-12 years 8-11 years 7. Adolescence 13-16 years 12-15 years 8. Adolescence 16-20 years 17-21 years 9. Mature age 1st period 2nd period 22- 35 years old 36-60 years old 21-35 years old 36-55 years old 10. Old age 11. Senile age 12. Centenarians 61-74 years 56-74 years 75-90 years 90 years and older

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The period of second childhood lasts for boys from 8 to 12 years, for girls - from 8 to 11 years. During this period, gender differences in body size and shape are revealed, and increased body length growth begins. Girls' growth rates are higher than those of boys, since puberty begins on average two years earlier in girls. Increased secretion of sex hormones (especially in girls) causes the development of secondary sexual characteristics.

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Adolescence is the period of puberty, or puberty. It lasts for boys from 13 to 16 years, for girls from 12 to 15 years. At this time, there is a further increase in growth rates - a pubertal leap, which affects all body sizes. The greatest increases in body length in girls occur between 11 and 12 years, and in body weight between 12 and 13 years. In boys, an increase in length is observed between 13 and 14 years, and an increase in body weight between 14 and 15 years. During adolescence, boys undergo intense puberty. Boys, compared to girls, have a longer pubertal period and a more pronounced pubertal growth spurt.

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Adolescence lasts for boys from 18 to 21 years, and for girls from 17 to 20 years. During this period, the process of growth and formation of the organism basically ends and all the main dimensional characteristics of the body reach their definitive (final) size.

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Over the course of a year, body length increases by 7-8 and even 10 cm. Moreover, from the age of 11-12, girls are slightly ahead of boys in growth due to the earlier onset of puberty. At the age of 13-14, girls and boys grow almost equally, and from the age of 14-15, boys and young men outstrip girls in height, and this excess of height in men over women persists throughout life. A growth spurt is associated with the onset of puberty.

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With age, head growth slows down and limb growth accelerates. Before the onset of puberty (prepuberty), there are no gender differences in body proportions, but during puberty (puberty), boys' limbs become longer, their torso shorter, and their pelvis narrower than girls'.

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The first sign of puberty in boys should be the beginning of enlargement of the testicles. On average, this occurs at 11-12 years of age; individual variations can normally span a period from 9 and a half to 15 years. events of the pubertal period appear in the following sequence: testicular growth > penis growth > larynx enlargement > pubic hair growth > axillary hair growth > growth spurt (body length growth spurt) > hair growth on the face and body. In girls, the first sign of puberty is: enlargement of the gonads > ovaries > enlargement of the mammary glands > growth spurt in body length (it begins at 9-13 years old and ends at 12-18 years old.) The most important marker of puberty in puberty girls is the onset of menstruation (menarche). Level of puberty

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Adolescence and adolescence It ends in boys by the age of 18-19, in girls by 16-17. By this time, the proportions of the body are fully formed, ossification of the skeleton is completed and the body grows in length.

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External changes in the body At the age of 10, the physical development of boys and girls is approximately the same, but already at the age of 11, girls are ahead of their peers in height (1.6 cm) and weight (1.7 kg). At 12 years old, girls are ahead of boys in all respects: body length (by 3.1 cm), weight (by 2.9 kg), chest circumference (by 4.5 cm). However, by the age of 14, all indicators of physical development become higher in boys.

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Teenagers' hearts grow quickly. From 10 to 16 years of age, its weight doubles, and its volume increases approximately 2.4 times. At the age of 9 to 17 years, the stroke volume of the heart, i.e. the amount of blood that the heart throws into the vessels during 1 contraction, increases in boys from 37 to 70 ml, and in girls - from 35 to 60 ml. At the same time, the resting heart rate decreases. At the age of 15, the pulse rate in boys is 70 beats per minute, and in girls - 72; by the age of 18, the pulse rate becomes the same as in adults.

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In adolescents aged 10-15 years, the chest circumference increases, due to which breathing deepens and the vital capacity of the lungs increases: in boys - from 1900 to 3380 cm3, reaching 4500 cm3 by the age of 18, in girls from 1650 to 2800 cm3, and by the age of 18 - up to 3800 cm3. In the developing circulatory system, there is often a discrepancy between the lumen of the vessels through which blood is ejected from the heart and the increased capacity of the heart. Due to this, blood pressure increases. So, if in boys and girls at the age of 10 the blood pressure is 99/55 mm, then by the age of 17 it rises to 120/65 mm in boys and to 115/60 mm in girls.

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The traditional method of determining dental age is based on taking into account the number (currently and sequence of erupted teeth (both primary and permanent) and comparing these data with existing standards. It is used as an indicator of biological age only up to 13-14 years, since primary teeth erupt from 6 months to 2 years, and permanent ones - on average from 6 to 13 years (with the exception of third molars).

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There are practically no gender differences in the eruption of primary teeth, but in the eruption of permanent teeth, as well as in the achievement of bone maturity, girls are ahead of boys, with the greatest differences noted in the timing of the eruption of canines.

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ACCELERATION AND RETARDATION Acceleration is the acceleration of the physical development and functional systems of children and adolescents. The term was proposed in 1935 by E. Koch, originally only denoting the acceleration of the growth of children and adolescents in the 20th century. compared to the 19th century.

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denotes the acceleration of the physical development of modern children and adolescents in comparison with previous generations. Physical indicators: The body length of newborns has increased over the past 50 years by 2-2.5 cm, weight - by 0.5 kg; In 15-year-olds, body length increased by 6-10 cm, weight - by 3-10 kg. Puberty is 2 years earlier. The duration of growth has shortened: it ends at 16-19 years (50-60 years ago - by 25-26 years). The acceleration of physical development characteristics also stimulated mental development. However, since mental development is also determined by social conditions, we should talk about two types of mental acceleration: a) caused by the early maturation of the morphofunctional basis of the psyche; b) conditioned by social progress.

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The biological mechanisms of acceleration are not fully understood. The main possible reasons for it are: The effect of heterosis associated with the widespread migration of the modern population and the increase in the number of mixed marriages. 2. Urbanization of the population and the stimulating influence of urban living conditions on the pace of physical development. 3. An increase in the level of radiation on Earth due to the emergence and development of new technologies. 4. Improving social and socio-hygienic living conditions of the population of industrialized countries. – acceleration of the physical development of individual children and adolescents in certain age groups. Such children make up on average 13-20% of the total number of children of this age. They physically fully mature by 15-17 years of age; Their mental maturation also occurs faster.

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Developmental physiology is important for the development of developmental psychology and pedagogy. When characterizing the anatomical and physiological characteristics of children, it is necessary to keep in mind: 1) the process of bodily development occurs continuously, therefore it is impossible to establish the exact timing of the onset and end of one or another period: in each period one can note many features characteristic of the previous age, and at the same time time for the appearance of new features that will develop only at the next age; 2) general patterns of bodily development are intertwined with the individual characteristics of the child, due to which the age range of one or another period has a fairly wide range. Therefore, taking into account the anatomical and physiological characteristics of children should also include the study of the individual characteristics of children.

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Literature Belyaev N.G. Age physiology. – Stavropol: SSU Publishing House, 1999. Ermolaev Yu.A. Age physiology. – M.: Higher School, 1985. Leontyeva N.N., Marinova K.V. Anatomy and physiology of the child's body. – M.: Education, 1986. Obreimova N.I., Petrukhin A.S. Fundamentals of anatomy, physiology and hygiene of children and adolescents. – M.: Academy, 2000. Sapin M.R., Bryksina Z.G. Anatomy, physiology of children and adolescents. – M.: Academy, 2000. Khripkova A.G., Antropova M.V., Farber D.A. Age physiology and school hygiene. – M.: Education, 1990.

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Peculiarities of vision in newborns At the 3rd week of intrauterine development, the formation of the eye occurs. At the birth of a child, you can visually see that the child's eyes are relatively larger than his body weight. a newborn's vision follows the formula 20/100 - this means that the baby can see an object if it is at a distance of 20–30 cm from his face and at eye level - no more. The baby sees objects somewhat blurry. The first two weeks the baby sees very poorly, his eyes are able to distinguish only colors only at the “brighter-darker” level - this happens because the muscles of the baby’s eyes are still very weak, in addition, the neural connections between the optic nerve and the occipital nerve are not fully formed. part of the cerebral cortex. Eye movements at birth are not yet coordinated. Every day the baby learns to focus his vision on objects that interest him. In newborn babies, the eyes may squint a little: they may bunch up or scatter in different directions - this should go away later. And only by the 2nd week can you observe the so-called “visual concentration” in the child. Gaze tracking of an object or a moving object functions by 2 months, and at 3 months binocular vision is already developed, that is, the child fixes an object with his gaze and follows its movement with both eyes. The reaction of the pupil to light appears in the fetus as early as 6 months. Some researchers believe that during the first weeks the baby sees a “flat” picture, there is no perspective effect, and it is upside down. All newborns are farsighted, which is why they see distant objects better. The small width of the field of vision allows the baby to see only objects “in front of him,” but if you move them to the side from the baby’s face, he will stop seeing them. The ability to raise and lower his eyes in order to see an object in a vertical plane will come to him a little later - closer to the fourth month of life.

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Features of the heart of an infant Children experience continuous growth and functional improvement of the cardiovascular system. The heart of a newborn has a flattened oval or spherical shape due to insufficient development of the ventricles and the relatively large size of the atria. Due to the high position of the diaphragm, the newborn's heart is located horizontally. The right and left ventricles are equal in thickness, their walls are 5 mm. The atrium and great vessels are relatively large in size. In young children, the heart muscle is undifferentiated and consists of thin, poorly separated myofibrils that contain a large number of oval nuclei. There is no transverse striation. The parts of the heart also grow unevenly. The left ventricle significantly increases its volume; by 4 months it is twice as heavy as the right one. The heart assumes an oblique position by the first year of life. By the end of the first year, the weight of the heart doubles. In children, the heart is located higher than in adults. The heart mass in boys in the first years of life is greater than in girls. Only by the age of 10–14 does the heart acquire the same shape as that of an adult.

Features of the child's respiratory system The nose, like the entire facial part of the skull, is relatively small in a young child. The nasal passages are narrow. The lower nasal passage in children of the 1st year of life is almost absent, since the inferior concha protrudes in the form of a small cushion. The choanae are relatively narrow, which predisposes to rhinitis. The nasal mucosa in young children has a delicate structure. It is richly supplied with small blood vessels, and therefore even slight hyperemia leads to its swelling and even greater narrowing of the nasal passages, which makes breathing through the nose difficult. The nasolacrimal duct is wide at an early age, which facilitates the penetration of infection from the nose and the occurrence of conjunctivitis. In newborns, the lymphatic ring is underdeveloped. In children of the 1st year of life, the tonsils are located deep between the arches and do not protrude into the pharynx cavity. The larynx in newborns and young children, compared to adults, is relatively short and wide, funnel-shaped, with delicate, pliable cartilage and thin muscles. It is located high. The larynx grows especially intensively in the 1st year of life and during puberty. The trachea in a newborn is located slightly higher than in an adult. The bronchi are a continuation of the airways. In the first year of life, the number of muscular bronchi is small.

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Tissues and organs Combining with each other, they form tissues. Tissues are a collection of cells and intercellular substance, similar in structure and specialized to perform certain functions. The main types of tissues are epithelial, connective, bone, muscle and nervous. Each of these tissues has specific properties. Tissues form organs. In the human body, organs occupy a permanent place and perform a specific function. For example, the lungs carry out gas exchange, providing oxygen to the blood, the kidneys - removing toxic metabolic products, the heart and blood vessels - transporting blood, etc.

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The doctrine of A. A. Ukhtomsky about the dominant. A. A. Ukhtomsky put forward the idea of ​​​​the presence of a dominant focus of excitation that creates in the brain a dynamic constellation (union) of nerve centers - a “functional organ”. A constellation of nerve centers consists of a large number of spatially separated nerve elements of different parts of the central nervous system, temporarily united for implementation of specific activities, at different moments they can form different dynamic constellations that ensure the fulfillment of certain goals and objectives facing the body. A. A. Ukhtomsky’s doctrine of the dominant A. A. Ukhtomsky put forward the idea of ​​​​the presence of a dominant focus of excitation that creates in. the brain is a dynamic constellation" (union) of nerve centers - a "functional organ". A constellation of nerve centers consists of a large number of spatially separated nerve elements of different parts of the central nervous system, temporarily united to carry out specific activities. Its individual components at different moments can form different dynamic constellations that ensure the fulfillment of certain goals and objectives facing the body. With age, the dominant constellation of nerve centers acquires, on the one hand, greater stability, and, on the other, greater plasticity. Both of these properties play an important role in the process of formation of cognitive activity.

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Individual-typological approach to teaching Specific knowledge and skills can be given to a “researcher” with great difficulty, and the need to manipulate real objects during educational activities can cause strong psycho-emotional stress in such a child. He may have a great interest in finding out the causes of phenomena, while it is easier for him to make a general analysis of them. However, he prefers not to dwell on particulars and details, and therefore he is characterized by an incomplete perception of specific facts. Sometimes “researchers” experience significant stress when they have to memorize a large amount of educational material (for example, in biology, history, chemistry), in which semantic connections and patterns are not traced. In addition, “researchers” are characterized by independence of judgment, high independence in determining what seems interesting to them, and specific selectivity of their own interests, as a result of which they may even “fall out” of the educational process and turn out to be “inconvenient” students in the teacher’s class. An important feature of “researchers” is their peculiar emotionality: most people may perceive them as emotionally “cold” and insensitive. This may also contribute to their image as “uncomfortable” students.

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Individual-typological approach to teaching In educational activities, “socials” will strive to avoid excessive theorizing; they better assimilate specific, factual material than theoretical issues. They feel much more comfortable when working with visual, real material than with verbal-logical material. They perceive verbal explanations of logical problems worse than drawings or drawings. Having done or written something correctly, they may find it difficult to provide a verbal account of what they have done. While acting practically correctly, such students experience difficulty when it comes to the need to provide a theoretical justification for their actions. The transition from specific actions to a generalized awareness of their patterns can cause noticeable difficulties.

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Individual-typological approach to learning Children with a social orientation are characterized by the need to rely on images even when their activity takes place in the mind; visual representations and imagination are important for them. They may have significant difficulties in assimilating educational information if it is not supported by any specific, real subject world. Their achievement in mathematics may not be due to their logical abilities, but to their imagery. They can continue to operate with visual images even if the problem is easily solved by reasoning, and the use of visual supports is difficult. “Socials” differ from representatives of other typological groups in their emotionality. They are very sensitive to the nuances of the feelings of the people around them, therefore, the emotional atmosphere in the class is important for “social” students; they prefer a democratic style of communication to an authoritarian one, an atmosphere of openness and goodwill towards them. At the same time, “social people,” to a much greater extent than representatives of other typological groups, are inclined toward entertainment and playful activities; they are characterized by a lack of desire to engage in any strenuous activity that requires significant effort.

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