When calculating the payload of an aircraft, "Mass - t" and "Mass characteristics" are used as the main quantities.

Mass characteristics are concepts, designations and definitions of the mass of the aircraft as a whole and its individual components used in calculating the payload.

The numerical value of body weight in kilograms is equal to the numerical value of its weight in kilograms and is determined by weighing on a balance scale.

In this manual, in addition to mass, other quantities such as density, force and pressure are also used.

Density (p) is a value determined by the ratio of the mass of a substance to the volume it occupies. For example, the standard densities of baggage, mail and cargo are: rdg = 120 kg / m ^ 3, rpch = 270 kg / m ^ 3, Рgr = 300 kg / m ^ 3.

Force (f) is a vector quantity that serves as a measure of the mechanical interaction of bodies. F = ma,

where m is the mass of the body, a is the acceleration imparted to this body by the force - f.

On earth, every body is affected by a force of gravity equal to the product of the mass and the acceleration of free fall (g): f = mg.

This force is determined on a spring balance.

The unit of force is newton (N). Newton is equal to the force that imparts an acceleration of 1 to a body with a mass of 1 kg in the direction of the force.

Pressure (p) - force f acting on an area element:

The unit of pressure is pascal (Pa). The pascal is equal to the pressure exerted by a force of 1 N on an area of ​​1

For example, the allowable pressure on the floor of the cargo compartment (trunk) is 3,922 or Pa, which corresponds to 400 kgf / m3, since 1 is equal to 9.81

The mass of an empty aircraft is the mass of the aircraft after it has been

manufacturing at the factory. determined by weighing and entered into the aircraft logbook.

The mass of an empty aircraft consists of the mass of the airframe, the mass of the power plant, the mass of the equipment of the cockpit of the passenger cabins, amenity and baggage-cargo spaces, flight and navigation equipment, the mass of the undischarged fuel and liquid residue in the systems:

The mass of an empty aircraft is the initial parameter in calculating the balance and loading of the aircraft.

The weight of the empty equipped aircraft is the mass of the empty aircraft with the main and additional equipment (removable equipment of the aircraft).

Basic equipment: oxygen, fluids in domestic systems, service equipment (ladders, ladders ...), non-removable pantry and kitchen equipment, power plant oil.

The basic equipment is usually common to the type of aircraft and is permanently on board.

Additional equipment: cinematographic equipment, tape recorders and radio installations, rescue equipment (inflatable chutes, rafts, vests ...), removable pantry and kitchen equipment, refrigerators, "I" liquid ..., luggage and cargo pallets and containers, means of fastening cargo.

Additional aircraft equipment may vary depending on the destination and flight conditions, passenger service class.

For example:

1. Passenger aircraft are provided with first-class cabins with increased comfort provided by additional equipment and service.

2. If the route passes over the water surface with a flight distance of more than 30 minutes from the coast, then the aircraft is equipped with individual inflatable life jackets weighing 1.15 kg and group rafts weighing 554-65 kg.

3. Baggage, mail and cargo are transported in bulk, on pallets or in containers. For piece and container-piece cargo, pallets PAV-2.5, PAV-3 and PAV-5.6 are used, with a carrying capacity of 2.5, 3.62 and 5.6 tons. The cargo is placed on the pallet so that the center of gravity (CG ) of the load coincided with the geometric center of the pallet (±5% along the length and ±10% along the width of the pallet). The cargo is moored to the Pallet with nets. Pallets are loaded into the aircraft using on-board mechanization on roller tracks or ball panels. The pallets are secured in the aircraft with standard rail locks on the side fittings of the pallets.

In civil aviation, universal aviation containers UAK-5 and UAK-10 are also used, with a carrying capacity of 5.67 and 11.34 tons (taking into account the mass of the container). Loading, rigging and fastening of containers is carried out in the same way as pallets.

Cargo in containers is fastened with upper straps (with a gap between the cargo and the ceiling of more than 200 mm). Containers are closed, sealed and numbered.

Containers and pallets are placed on the aircraft in accordance with the centering schedule and loading scheme. The permissible error in alignment should not exceed ± 0.5% of the SAH.

Oversized cargo is attached to the aircraft with special cables, chains or straps for mooring knots.

The main and additional equipment is taken into account in the operational weight of the aircraft.

Crew mass - mass of the flight crew. Its value in kg is determined by the formula:

,where

80 - standard weight of one flight crew member in kg;

n" is the number of crew members.

The mass of flight attendants is the mass of the crew's attendants.

Its value in kg is determined by the formula:

where 75 is the standard weight of one flight attendant (flight operator) with hand luggage in kg; - the number of flight attendants (flight operators) on the aircraft. The value is determined by the passenger capacity of the aircraft (one flight attendant for every 50 passengers), the carrying capacity and the complexity of the onboard mechanization of the production of loading and unloading operations.

For example, on Il-86 aircraft, 350 passengers are served by 8-12 flight attendants. The large carrying capacity (40 tons) and the complex mechanization of the Il-76T aircraft determine the presence of two operators on board.

The mass of flight attendants (operators) is taken into account in the operational mass of the aircraft.

Mass of food products - total normalized mass

food with packaging, utensils and containers, souvenirs for sale, soft inventory and literature.

The total standard mass of food products consists of the products rationed for the given flight for the crew and passengers and products in excess of the norm for sale.

The mass of products, souvenirs and light equipment increases significantly with the introduction of first-class passenger service.

The mass of foodstuffs is taken into account in the operational mass of the aircraft.

Payload weight - the total mass of passengers,

luggage, mail, cargo, winter coats. The value is determined by the formula:

The maximum payload mass is the maximum payload, limited by the number of passenger seats, the capacity of baggage and cargo spaces and the strength of the airframe structural elements. This ensures high efficiency and safety of air transportation throughout the life of the aircraft.

Maximum payload mass - the largest

The smallest value of the two is taken as:

The calculation of the second value of the maximum commercial load is reduced to determining the difference between the maximum allowable and operational weight of the aircraft on takeoff.

This difference is calculated taking into account the fuel:

Two values ​​​​of the maximum commercial load must be compared with each other and the smallest of them should be taken as the desired value

Takeoff, flight and landing safety requirements in the expected conditions of the upcoming flight are provided by limiting the maximum takeoff weight of the aircraft and the maximum payload.

Ballast weight - balancing weight, which ensures the flight centering of the aircraft in the absence of sufficient payload.

For example, refueling an aircraft with a swept wing fuel shifts the CG back so much that an insignificant load placed in the forward fuselage may not ensure the flight balance of the aircraft - the total gravity of the aircraft mg will be in the CG behind the flight balance range (Fig. 1). In such cases, ballast is additionally loaded into the nose of the fuselage, the gravity of which shifts the aircraft CG forward from CG 4 to CG 2.

The displacement value (c) is determined from the moment equation

On fig. 1 resulting force of gravity - is conventionally depicted by a dotted line, since either the components and or their resultant act on the aircraft. In practice, the value is determined by the DC with the help of the CG in the process of calculating the payload and is included in the actual payload.

As ballast on aircraft, sandbags weighing 80-100 kg, cast-iron bars, antifreeze liquid, and fuel are used. Sandbags and cast iron bars are usually placed in front of cargo compartment No. 1 (trunk). On the Il-62 aircraft, antifreeze or fuel is poured into the ballast tank into tank No. 6.

On the Tu-154 plane - fuel in tank No. 4.

Aircraft loading - accommodation (presence) of passengers in the cabins; baggage, mail, cargo, ballast in baggage and cargo spaces; ballast liquid or fuel in the aircraft tanks in accordance with the CG, loading scheme, consolidated loading list (SZV).

The mass of the aircraft without fuel is the total mass of self-

summer, prepared for flight, but not refueled. The value is determined by the formula

The weight of the aircraft without fuel is used to simplify the calculation of the distribution of payload on long-haul aircraft using the CG.

The main aircraft include 1st and 2nd class aircraft with a large amount of fuel (Il-62, Il-76T, Il-86, Tu-154).

Fuel is taken into account when determining, according to special graphs, the dependence of aircraft balance on fuel consumption

Aircraft refueling - filling aircraft tanks with fuel, oil, special liquids, gas and water, or the presence of the listed components on the aircraft in accordance with the flight task. The bulk of refueling accounts for fuel.

When calculating the payload, a relatively small mass of oil, special liquids, gases and water are taken into account in the mass of an empty curb aircraft.

The mass of fuel (filling) is preliminarily calculated by the duty navigator of the airport of departure and specified by the crew.

The mass of fuel is the sum of: the mass of fuel per flight / t.floor and the aeronautical fuel reserve (ANZ)

The mass of fuel is taken into account in the operational mass of the aircraft. Aircraft Operating Weight - Takeoff Weight

aircraft, but without payload.

The value is determined by the formula:

The operating weight of an aircraft is the sum of the masses of the empty equipped aircraft, crew, flight attendants (operators), food and fuel.

The operating weight of the aircraft is used to calculate the maximum payload, takeoff and landing weight of the aircraft.

The maximum allowable takeoff weight of the aircraft -

the largest mass of the aircraft at the start, determined by the safety requirements in the conditions of the upcoming takeoff, flight and landing.

The value is determined by engineering and navigational calculation.

The maximum allowable landing weight of the aircraft is found, taking into account the characteristics of the main and alternate airfields and the expected weather conditions. The maximum allowable flight weight of the aircraft is calculated taking into account the flight altitude and the fuel required for the flight. It is determined taking into account the results obtained, the characteristics and weather conditions of the departure aerodrome.

It is practically calculated in advance, and later specified by the duty navigator. The calculated value ensures safety in all flight modes.

Based on it, the DC makes a preliminary calculation of the value

and pre-calculation

In the process of pre-flight preparation, the crew specifies the fuel reserve, the allowable landing, flight and take-off weight of the aircraft. The DC makes the final calculation of the maximum payload and, in case of exceeding the takeoff weight, the takeoff run length is increased and the rate of climb of the aircraft is reduced. The length of the runway may not be sufficient for takeoff.

The maximum takeoff weight of the aircraft - the largest

the mass of the aircraft at the start, limited by the strength of the airframe structure.

External forces act on the aircraft structure - lift force, drag force, landing gear reaction force and body forces as a result of the aircraft's acceleration and gravity.

Flight safety in terms of the strength of the aircraft structure is ensured during the service life of the aircraft, only under the condition that the above loads, mainly body forces, for which the structural strength is calculated, do not exceed the value

Flight mass of the aircraft - the mass of the aircraft at the current moment of flight.

The flight of the aircraft is carried out due to the thrust of the engines, which overcomes the aerodynamic resistance and ensures the creation, with the help of the wing, of the lifting force of the aircraft. In this case, fuel is produced and the flight mass of the aircraft continuously decreases from

The maximum allowable flight weight of the aircraft -

the largest mass of the aircraft, determined by the safety requirements in the conditions of the forthcoming flight.

The value of the maximum allowable flight weight of the aircraft is determined in the engineering and navigational calculation, based on weather conditions, the planned flight level, as well as fuel consumption and is taken into account in

Exceeding the flight mass of the aircraft is accompanied by an increase in the angle of attack of the wing to increase lift, which can lead to reaching supercritical angles of attack and stalling the aircraft.

The maximum allowable landing weight of the aircraft -

the largest mass of the aircraft, determined by the safety requirements in the conditions of the upcoming landing.

The value of the maximum allowable landing weight is determined at the beginning of the navigational calculation, taking into account the characteristics of the main and alternate airfields and the expected weather conditions. Based on the Excess is determined

The landing weight of the aircraft is accompanied by an increase in the rate of descent of the aircraft on landing and the length of the run, which can lead to a rough landing with the destruction of the aircraft structure, as well as to overrun from the runway.

The maximum landing weight of an aircraft is the maximum mass of an aircraft on landing, limited by the strength of the airframe structure.

Flight safety in terms of the strength of the aircraft structure is ensured during the entire life of the aircraft only if the landing weight does not exceed the maximum landing weight of the aircraft;

B-17 bomber prototype

Progress in aircraft construction made it possible to build heavy four-engine aircraft that were not inferior in speed to "high-speed" twin-engine bombers. This was achieved by installing powerful and lightweight supercharged engines; introduction of variable pitch propellers; increasing the load on the wing due to the use of landing mechanization of the wing; reducing the drag coefficient and improving the aerodynamic quality of the aircraft through the use of smooth skin, smooth contours of the fuselage and a "thin" wing. The first heavy bomber of the new generation was the four-engined Boeing B-17. An experimental aircraft took off on July 28, 1935.

Simultaneously with the improvement of the "classic" bomber in the 1930s, a new type of aircraft appeared - "dive bomber". The most famous dive bombers are the German Ju-87 and the Soviet Pe-2.

In combat operations, single-engine bombers were also used to support the ground forces: Battle, Su-2, Ju-87, etc. As practice has shown, they operated effectively only in conditions of air supremacy of their aircraft, as well as when attacking weakly protected anti-aircraft artillery objects. As a result, by the end of the war, the production of light single-engine bombers was generally discontinued.

Unlike Germany and the USSR, where front-line aviation developed first of all, in the USA and Great Britain much attention was paid to the development of heavy four-engine bombers capable of destroying the enemy’s economic centers and disorganizing its industry with massive strikes. With the outbreak of war in the UK, the Avro Lancaster was adopted, which became the main heavy aircraft of the Bomber Command.

B-29 "Superfortress"

The basis of American heavy bomber aviation was the B-17 - the fastest and highest-altitude bomber in the world at the beginning of the war and the B-24. Despite the fact that it was inferior to the B-17 in speed and ceiling, the manufacturability of its design made it possible to establish the production of individual aircraft components at non-aviation plants. So, the fuselages of this bomber were produced at the automobile factories of the Ford corporation.

The pinnacle in the development of heavy piston bombers was the Boeing B-29, created in 1942 under the guidance of designer A. Jordanov. Powerful engines and perfect aerodynamics provided the aircraft with a speed of up to 575 km / h, a ceiling of 9700 m and a range of 5000 km with 4000 kg of bombs. He became the first carrier of nuclear weapons: on August 6, 1945, a bomber with its own name "Enola Gay" dropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima, on August 9, the city of Nagasaki, Japan was subjected to a nuclear bombardment.

The first Ar-234B jet bomber

Since 1944, jet bomber aircraft have been involved in hostilities. The first jet fighter-bomber was the Me-262A2, a bomber modification of the first jet fighter, created in 1942 in Germany. Me-262A2 carried two 500 kg bombs on an external sling. The first Ar-234 jet bomber was also built in Germany. Its speed was 742 km / h, range 800 km, ceiling 10000 m Ar-234 could use bombs weighing up to 1400 kg. The first carriers of guided weapons were the German bombers Do-217 K, which destroyed the Italian battleship Roma in 1943 with guided bombs. The He-111 bomber, obsolete by the end of the war, became the first strategic missile carrier: it launched V-1 cruise missiles at targets in the British Isles.

In connection with the increase in flight range, the classification of bombers has changed slightly: vehicles with an intercontinental range of about 10-15 thousand km began to be called strategic, bombers with a range of up to 10,000 km became long-range, sometimes they are called medium, and vehicles that operate in the tactical rear of the enemy and in the front line began to be called the front. However, countries that did not become owners of bombers with intercontinental range continued to call their long-range bombers strategic, for example, the Chinese H-6 bomber; Also, the classification of bombers was seriously influenced by the views of the leadership on their use and construction, for example, the F-111 front-line bomber received a “fighter” name.

The first intercontinental-range bomber was the B-36 Conver, built in 1946 in the United States, which also became the last piston-engined strategic bomber. It had an unusual appearance due to the combined power plant: 6 piston engines with pusher propellers and 4 jet engines installed in pairs under the wing. But even with jet engines, the piston machine could not reach speeds of more than 680 km / h, which made it very vulnerable in connection with the adoption of high-speed jet fighters. Despite the fact that by the standards of modern aviation, the B-36 did not last long (the last bomber was withdrawn from service in 1959), machines of this type were widely used as flying laboratories.

Unlike the United States, the Soviet leadership did not begin to lower the altitude of the bombers in service, but concentrated their efforts on the development of new multi-mode aircraft. August 30, 1969 made the first flight of the Soviet multi-mode long-range bomber with a variable sweep wing Tu-22M. Initially, this aircraft was developed by the Tupolev Design Bureau on its own initiative as a deep modernization of the generally unsuccessful Tu-22 aircraft, but as a result, the new aircraft had practically nothing in common with it. The Tu-22M has a large bomb load of 24,000 kg, comparable only to the bomb load of the B-52.

B-1B over the Pacific.

The American leadership initiated the development of a new multi-mode bomber to replace the B-52 only in 1969. The B-1A bomber made its first flight on December 23, 1974 in Palmdale (USA). The aircraft was a low-wing aircraft with a variable geometry wing and a smooth articulation of the wing and fuselage. But in 1977, after a cycle of flight tests, the program was stopped: successes in the creation of cruise missiles, as well as successful research work in the field of stealth (stealth technology), once again called into question the need for low-altitude air defense breakthrough aircraft. The development of a multi-mode bomber was resumed only in 1981, but already as an intermediate aircraft, before the inconspicuous strategic bomber entered service. The first flight of the updated B-1B was made on October 18, 1984, and production vehicles entered service only in 1986; thus, the B-1 became the most "explored" aircraft, setting a kind of record: 16 years passed from the moment the design began in 1970 until it entered service.

At the end of 2007, the Russian Air Force formulated requirements for a new long-range bomber (the PAK DA project). The aircraft will be created on the basis of the Tu-160 using stealth technology. The first flight of the new aircraft is scheduled for 2015.

In 1990, the US Department of Defense developed a new program to create the latest models of military equipment, which provided for the construction of a limited number of pieces of equipment (for example, to form one squadron). As a result, the production of the B-2 after the construction of 21 aircraft was discontinued. As of March 2008, the US Air Force had: 20 B-2A stealth bombers, 67 B-1B supersonic bombers, and 90 B-52H subsonic bombers.

China also has strategic aviation, which is armed with 120 H-6 (Tu-16) long-range bombers, and France, in which 64 Mirage 2000N fighter-bombers solve strategic tasks.

tactical aviation

In modern tactical aviation, the difference between a tactical (front-line) bomber, fighter-bomber and attack aircraft is very blurred. Many combat aircraft designed for air strikes, although they look like fighters, have limited capabilities for air combat. Obviously, the characteristics that allow the aircraft to effectively strike from low altitudes are not suitable for a fighter to achieve air superiority. At the same time, many fighters, despite the fact that they were created for air combat, are used mainly as bombers. The main differences of the bomber are still a long range and limited air combat capabilities.

In the air forces of developed countries, the tasks of tactical bombers are usually performed by multi-role fighters (fighter-bombers). So, in the United States, the last specialized tactical bomber F-117 was withdrawn from service on April 22, 2008. Bomber missions in the US Air Force are carried out by F-15E and F-16 fighter-bombers, and in the Navy - by carrier-based F / A-18 fighter-bombers.

Standing apart in this row is Russia, which is armed with Su-24 front-line bombers and long-range bombers.

Russia became the birthplace of bomber aircraft thanks to the designer Igor Sikorsky, who in 1913 created the first aircraft of this type. The USSR also created the most massive bomber in the world. And on January 20, 1952, the first intercontinental jet bomber M-4, created by V.M. Myasishchev. Today is a review of bomber aircraft created by domestic designers.

Ilya Muromets - the world's first bomber

The world's first bomber was created in Russia in 1913 by Igor Sikorsky and was named after the epic hero. "Ilya Muromets" - this was the name of various modifications of this aircraft, which were produced in Russia from 1913 to 1917. The main parts of the aircraft were wooden. The lower and upper wings were assembled from separate parts and connected by connectors. The wingspan of the first bomber was 32 meters. Since aircraft engines were not produced in Russia in those years, German-made Argus engines were installed on Ilya Muromets. The domestic R-BV3 engine was installed on the bomber in 1915.

"Ilya Muromets" was 4-engine, and even stopping two engines could not make the plane land. During the flight, people could walk on the wings of the aircraft, and this did not affect the balance of the aircraft. During the testing of the aircraft, Sikorsky himself took to the wing to make sure that, if necessary, the pilot could repair the engine right in the air.

At the end of December 1914, Emperor Nicholas II approved the decision of the Military Council on the creation of the "Squadron of Airships", which became the world's first formation of bombers. On the first combat mission, the aircraft of the Russian squadron flew out on February 27, 1915. The first flight was unsuccessful, because the pilots got lost and did not find the target. The next day, the task was completed successfully: the pilots dropped 5 bombs on the railway station, and the bombs fell right among the rolling stock. The result of the bomber raid was captured in the photo. In addition to bombs, the Ilya Muromets bomber was armed with a machine gun.

In total, during the First World War, Russian bombers made 400 sorties, dropping 65 tons of bombs and destroying 12 enemy fighters. Combat losses amounted to only one aircraft.

TB-1 - the world's first heavy bomber

TB-1, which, after long tests and improvements in 1931, nevertheless left the assembly line, became the first domestic monoplane bomber, the first domestic all-metal bomber and the first Soviet-designed bomber that went into serial production. It was with the TB-1 that the formation of strategic aviation began in the USSR. These machines have plied the skies for over two decades.

It was on TB-1 that a lot of innovations were tested, which were subsequently used in aviation, in particular the "autopilot" system, radio control systems, ejection systems, and so on. The aircraft could carry 1030 kg of bomb load and small arms (three twin installations). The crew of the aircraft - 5-6 people.

On the TB-1 and its modifications, several world aviation records were set. So, it was on this bomber that the first ever flight by plane from the USSR to the USA was made. In 1934, pilot A.V. Lyapidevsky saved the Chelyuskinites and took all the women and children out of the camp. TB-1 bombers were in service in the USSR until 1936, and some - before the start of the Great Patriotic War.

Pe-2 - the most massive bomber

The Pe-2 was very compact and had an all-metal construction with a good aerodynamic shape. The bomber was equipped with 2 M-105R liquid-cooled engines of 1100 hp each, which allowed the aircraft to reach speeds of up to 540 km / h (only 30 km / h less than the Me-109E fighter, which was in service with the Nazi army ).

In 1940, 2 serial bombers were produced, and at the beginning of 1941, 258 Pe-2 bombers left the assembly line. On May 1, 1941, a new bomber, which received the 95th air regiment of Colonel Pestov, flew over Red Square during a parade. Pe-2 took part in the fighting literally in the first days of the war. By 1943, Pe-2 bombers were number one in bomber aviation. Due to their high bombing accuracy, they were very effective weapons. It is known that on July 16, 1943, pilots of the 3rd Bomber Air Corps destroyed 229 vehicles, 55 tanks, 12 machine-gun and mortar emplacements, 11 anti-aircraft and 3 field guns, 7 fuel and ammunition depots on their 115 aircraft.

And although in 1944 the Tu-2 began to arrive at the front, which surpassed the Pe-2 in basic parameters, the “pawn” remained the main Soviet bomber until the end of the war and, together with it, became a legend of Soviet aviation.

At the beginning of 1945, 4 American B-29 aircraft accidentally ended up on the Far Eastern airfields of the USSR, which participated in the bombing of Japan and the territories it occupied. When the Communist Party and the Soviet government gave designers the task of creating a modern long-range bomber, MAI professor and aircraft designer Vladimir Myasishchev suggested copying American bombers, but installing domestic ASh-72 engines on the new aircraft, and replacing American machine guns with B-20 guns.

Tu-4, flight tests of which took place already in 1947, is an all-metal cantilever monoplane. The length of the bomber was 30.8 meters, and the wingspan was 43.05 meters. Four ASh-73TK motors with a capacity of 2400 hp. With. allowed the aircraft to accelerate to a speed of 558 km / h at an altitude of 10 km. The maximum bomb load is 8 tons. The efficiency of the aircraft was improved through the use of automation. For example, an onboard locator with an autopilot made it possible to find targets and hit them even at night.

The Tu-4 became the first Soviet carrier of nuclear weapons when, in 1951, a bomber regiment armed with atomic bombs was formed in the USSR. In 1956, during the Hungarian events, the regiment flew to bombard Budapest, which was interrupted at the last moment by the order of the Soviet command.

A total of 847 aircraft were built, 25 of which were transferred to China.

In the late 1940s, with the advent of nuclear weapons, there was a need for means of delivery. Bombers were needed, which exceeded the existing technical characteristics by about 2 times. The Americans were the first to develop the concept of such an aircraft. This is how the B-60 and B-52 appeared, which took to the air in the spring of 1953. In the USSR, work on a bomber of this class began with a significant delay. Stalin entrusted the development of the aircraft to MAI professor V. Myasishchev, who submitted to the government a scientifically based proposal to create a strategic aircraft with a flight range of 11,000 - 12,000 km, but at the same time, very tight deadlines were set for the project. By December 1952, a prototype aircraft was built, and in January 1953, the M-4 bomber - an eight-seat cantilever all-metal medium wing equipped with 4 engines and a retractable bicycle-type landing gear - made its first flight.

As a result of changes and improvements, an aircraft was created, the flight range of which, in comparison with earlier models, increased by 40% and exceeded 15 thousand km. The duration of the flight with one refueling was 20 hours, which made it possible to use the M-4 as an intercontinental strategic bomber. Another innovation - the new bomber could be used as a long-range naval torpedo bomber.

The tactics of using the M-4 provided for the flights of these aircraft in formation as part of a squadron or regiment at an altitude of 8-11 km. Approaching the target, the aircraft broke formation and each bomber carried out an attack on its own object. Thanks to the cannon armament system, the bomber could effectively resist interceptor aircraft. The aircraft were officially decommissioned in 1994.

The design of the Il-28 bomber began with the tail. The fact is that the creation of this aircraft became possible due to the launch into mass production of a reliable English turbojet engine with a Ning centrifugal compressor, in which a defensive mobile unit was used, which determined the main layout features of the Il-28.

The main advantage of the aircraft was the fact that the IL-28 was stable over the entire speed range. He easily performed any maneuvers necessary for the bombers, performed turns with a roll of up to 80 degrees. During a combat turn, the climb reached 2 km.

IL-28 was produced under license in China under the name H-5. The aircraft was widely operated in more than 20 countries. In total, about 6 thousand units were produced.

Su-34 - 4+ generation bomber

The Su-34 bomber, designed to deliver high-precision strikes against surface and land targets at any time of the day, has become the Russian 4+ generation bomber. Its design ended in the early 1990s.

Some elements of the Su-34 are made using Stealth technology. So, in the aircraft, the degree of reflection of enemy radar radiation was reduced with consistently good aerodynamics. Radar absorbing materials and coatings made the Su-34 less visible on radar screens than aircraft such as the Su-24, F-111 and F-15E. Another element of the combat survivability of the Su-34 is that the navigator-operator has a second control.

Su-34 front-line bombers, according to experts, are many times superior to their predecessors. The aircraft, whose combat radius exceeds 1000 km, can carry 12 tons of various weapons on board. Bombing accuracy is 5-7 meters. And experts say that the Su-34 has not yet used its resource.

The Tu-95 bomber was the first Soviet intercontinental bomber and the last aircraft designed by Stalin. The first flight of the Tu-95 prototype, created in OKB-156 under the leadership of A.N. Tupolev, took place on November 12, 1952, and mass production was started in 1955 and continues today.
a world record for non-stop flight for aircraft of this class - bombers flew about 30 thousand km over three oceans in 43 hours, making 4 refueling in the air. And in February 2013, two Tu-95 Medved strategic bombers carrying nuclear-tipped cruise missiles flew over the Western Pacific island of Guam hours before US President Barack Obama addressed the nation. The Washington Free Beacon called this fact " a sign of Moscow's growing self-confident strategic assertiveness towards the United States».

It is worth noting that the bombers created in Great Britain, the USA, Italy, Poland, Japan and other countries also left a significant mark on the history of aviation. Earlier we published a review about the times of the Second World War.

Secondly, the development of aviation involved the solution of more serious problems. Thirdly, the Soviet leadership, considering the main task of aviation to support ground forces, the main forces and means were directed to the development of attack and fighter aircraft, practically not paying attention to the conduct of a strategic air war. After all, the Russians were able to do without having a strong bomber force, since the Western Allies did this job for them.

Thus, in 1944-1945. Soviet bomber aviation lagged far behind and. Noting this circumstance, the German combat commanders are nevertheless unanimous that the Soviet bomber aviation was able to take advantage of the decline in the activity of German fighter aircraft and added a lot over the last two years of the war.

In 1944-1945. the main task of the Soviet bombers supported ground army operations. Continuous massive bombing attacks in the German front line in the area of ​​​​the main attack during the offensive and breaking through the defenses played an important role in the successful completion of the operation. Over time, attacks on airfields and other targets deep in the German rear also became more frequent. And yet, during the final stage of the war, the use of Soviet bombers, even in pseudo-strategic operations, was quite rare.

Acting in accordance with the accepted concept of air warfare, the Russians successfully used their bomber aircraft, which provided significant assistance to the ground army. Its technical equipment was quite consistent with the solution of this specific problem. The effectiveness of bombing strikes has increased, since the opposition of German fighter aircraft and anti-aircraft weapons was weakened both by the use of strong fighter escort and by the use of high flight altitudes by Soviet bombers.

Soviet aviation ADD also acted in accordance with the concept of the use of bomber aviation by the Soviet command. Initially, it was planned that it would be an independent branch of aviation, independent of the army, designed to conduct pseudo-strategic night operations, but almost immediately, due to technical problems, the impossibility of training a large number of pilots, as well as the general concept of using aviation, these plans had to be abandoned. Thus, Soviet long-range bomber aviation was involved exclusively in the performance of missions for direct or indirect support of ground forces.

Long range bombers they acted on targets in the main strike area and directly on the battlefield, as well as on the infrastructure of the transport network, warehouses and structures in the rear of the German troops. Therefore, ADD aviation, which for a long time was based in the Moscow area, was later distributed along the entire front line and concentrated in those areas where the Soviet command was preparing major offensive operations.

This appointment of bomber aviation became especially evident with the start of the Soviet offensive on June 22, 1944, when the advancing troops were supported by large bomber aviation forces, which had been in reserve until that time. Several night raids Koenigsberg (Kaliningrad), Berlin, Bucharest and some other large cities, using high-explosive and incendiary bombs, showed the features of these strategic operations and can only be considered as exceptional measures. Often only about a third of the total number of aircraft sent on missions of this kind reached the target area, which led to the insignificance of the final results. This applies equally to terrorist raids (pursuing political goals) on Finnish cities, especially on Helsinki, Turku and Kotka spring 1944

The absence of long-range escort fighters did not allow long-range bomber aircraft to strike deep in the German rear during the daytime. The bombers were often given missions to supply the partisans. During the last two years of the war, Soviet bomber activity against German shipping and ports in the eastern Baltic Sea and in the North reached such a level that in some cases the Russians caused serious trouble for the Germans.

In general, we can assume that in 1944-1945. Soviet bomber aircraft made some progress in its development. However, insufficient attention to this type of aviation, problems with the training of flight crews, as well as equipping bomber units with modern technology and equipment, the limited use of available forces - all this led to the fact that bomber aviation did not reach the level and significance of fighter and attack aircraft.

According to available sources, the organization of Soviet bomber aviation in 1944-1945. remained about the same as the year before. This statement applies both to bomber aviation operating as part of the air armies, and to long-range bomber aviation, which was directly subordinate to the Headquarters of the Supreme High Command.

Consolidation of the actions of the headquarters of air divisions and air corps became the general rule and was applied with exceptional firmness to the forces intended for long-range bombing operations. Each air corps long-range bomber aviation usually included two air divisions, each, in turn, consisted of two (later three) air regiments. In front-line bomber aviation, the number of air divisions in the corps was different, depending on the current situation. Each air division consisted of three air regiments. At the end of the war, it was planned to create a new 18th Air Army, consisting only of long-range bomber air units, but this plan was never implemented.

In March 1944, the quantitative composition of the Soviet bomber aviation was estimated as follows: 530 aircraft manufactured by the Western Allies (45 DC-3, 100 B-25, 385 Boston III); 2213 Soviet-made aircraft (68 TB-7, 309 PS-84, 543 DB-ZF, 1293 Pe-2); 1818 night light and obsolete aircraft of Soviet production (70 SB-2, 1624, 124 aircraft of other designs). The composition of long-range bomber aviation was estimated at 860 aircraft in February 1944, 1100 in June, 1300 in August, 1400 in September 1944 and 1600 in January 1945. Thus, its forces almost doubled in just a year. times.

In mid-September 1944, 6 bomber air corps, 30 air divisions and 110 bomber air regiments were known. By the end of the year, these figures had increased to 7 air corps, 35 air divisions and 135 air regiments. For comparison, in mid-September, long-range bomber aviation consisted of 9 air corps, 18 air divisions and 48 air regiments. By the end of the year, the number of air corps and air divisions had not changed, and the number of air regiments had increased to 58.

At the end of 1944, the actual number of aircraft in the regiment, as a rule, exceeded the standard (33 bombers) by 3-5 aircraft. In addition, most squadrons had several reserve crews. Approximately 70% of the crews consisted of experienced pilots. They flew the same aircraft models as in previous years, although with some technical improvements.

In 1943, 5100 bombers were lost, and in 1944 - 5200. The slight increase in aircraft lost in 1944 is completely disproportionate to the increase in numbers and clearly demonstrates the increase in the power of Soviet bomber aviation.

The distribution of Soviet bomber air units along the Eastern Front largely depended on the ground offensive areas. This applies equally to both front-line bomber aviation and long-range bomber aviation.

Thus, for example, at the beginning of 1944, most of the long-range bombers were concentrated in the northern regions to attack Finland, and from April they moved to the south. There they concentrated under the control of six corps headquarters in the Kyiv region, and from June on they supported the operations of ground army units. During the summer, these forces participated in attacks in the southern and central regions, and in the fall, almost all were moved north to conduct operations against the German Army Group North. All of the above movements of long-range bomber aviation units were carried out based on the needs of the ground forces, and not in accordance with the plans of a strategic air war.

The growth of Soviet bomber aviation was still held back by the fact that the advantage was given to fighter and attack aircraft, and it was there that the best flight personnel were sent. Without a doubt, these circumstances adversely affected the morale and stubbornness of the Russian pilots. At the same time, everyone agrees that the fighting qualities of the Soviet aircrews and self-confidence were strengthened as the opposition of the German side decreased and the successful Soviet ground offensive increased.

According to available sources, the general principles of the use of Soviet bomber aircraft remained unchanged until the very end of the war. This means that the overwhelming majority of bomber aviation, including long-range bomber aviation units, were used to support the operations of ground units, and Soviet aircraft attacked targets in the front line and in the zone of German transport communications; bomber flights of a pseudo-strategic nature remained the exception to the rule. At the same time, bomber groups attacked targets in the German rear with increasing intensity, since these targets were directly related to ground operations.

Close cooperation with the ground army led to increased responsibility and control over the implementation of combat missions. During the last two years of the war, bombers rarely operated in groups of less than a regiment, usually attacks by regimental groups followed each other after a fairly short period of time. Bombers have always had fighter escort, and if it happened to be the first to carry out a task in the front line, then patrol fighters took over this function.

According to the Soviet command, the pseudo-strategic operations of long-range bomber aviation were not of particular importance, so there were no major changes in the organization of these flights. However, the tactics of attacking actions gradually became more perfect. Now, in accordance with modern concepts, the bombers operated in night operations in large groups, the bombing attacks carried out by each aircraft individually followed each other at shorter intervals than before. In addition, long-range bombers carried out night harassing strikes in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe main line of defense of the German troops - by single aircraft; as well as strikes as part of groups against targets in the depths of German defenses and missions for the delivery of goods. As a rule, flights at night, especially over long distances, were carried out only in good weather.

During the last years of the war, no changes were noted in the way combat missions were carried out. Attacks were carried out in regimental waves, with squadrons following each other at short intervals. On average, the flight altitude ranged from 2000 to 4000 m. The aircraft flew in close formation, they all dropped bombs from level flight after receiving the appropriate order from the leading aircraft. In general, the accuracy and efficiency of strikes have increased. Often an attacking group of bombers approached the target in such a way that immediately after dropping the bombs, without changing the direction of flight, head towards the front line.

At the end of the war, the decline in the German air defense potential led to the fact that Soviet bombers increasingly launched attacks from low altitudes. In aerial combat, the bombers acted more cohesively, without their earlier nervousness and clumsiness. Of decisive importance in this was both the increase in the quantitative composition of the groups and the decrease in the activity of German fighter aircraft. In the spring of 1945, Soviet bombers carried out attacks on targets in East Prussia in the morning and evening twilight. Long-range twin-engine bombers participated in the raids. At the same time, each aircraft individually reached the target at an altitude of 800-1000 m and dropped three or four 100-kg bombs. The interval between the planes was approximately five minutes. The effectiveness of these attacks, however, was low due to the strong opposition of German fighters and anti-aircraft artillery.

The only real innovation in night operations was that during night harassment raids, bombers began to act large groups(previously only single aircraft were used) and began to adhere to modern tactical principles.

Thus, in 1944-1945. Soviet bombing operations are characterized by the following peculiarities:

a) with regard to formation, cruising and attack altitudes, approach, combat course, withdrawal, formation flying and air combat, previously used tactics were retained and improved, but nothing essentially new was demonstrated;

b) daylight bombing strikes were carried out by more and more large forces with obligatory fighter escort;

c) night bombing operations, with the exception of harassing raids, were carried out not by single aircraft, but more and more often by groups in accordance with Western standards.

The behavior of bombers over the battlefield and interaction with the army in 1944-1945. were similar to similar actions in 1943. The only difference was that they became more intense, powerful and successful. Both in choosing the time and place of the attack, the Russians firmly adhered to the principle of concentration of forces. During the battle for Sevastopol in the spring of 1944, Soviet bombers used the same tactics as attack aircraft. In the first stage of the ground operation (the retreat of the German army to Sevastopol), the bombers did not take part at all. In the second stage (an attempt to take the fortress on the move), bombers based in the Kyiv area attacked targets deep in the fortified area day and night. However, not so many bombs were dropped in total, so the losses of the Germans were small.

In the third stage of the battle, Soviet bomber aircraft sometimes made similar raids on targets in the city, but this time special attention was paid to German airfields. At the fourth stage (the evacuation of German troops across the Black Sea), the bombers attacked the places of loading troops and transport ships in the port of Sevastopol. Here they have made significant progress. sinking "Totila" and "Teia", transports with a displacement of 3000 tons, and many ships with a displacement of up to 1000 tons. At the same time, the Germans suffered heavy losses in personnel.

During the period under review, the area of ​​activity of bomber aviation expanded. Often, together with attack aircraft and fighter-bombers, bombers operated in the ground offensive area, attacking targets both directly on the battlefield and in the German rear. Like attack aircraft, Soviet bombers attacked the retreating columns of German troops quite rarely and irregularly.

As regards the strongholds of the German defense in Courland, and the German retreat from Estonia to Riga, it can be said that the continuous attacks of Soviet bombers could seriously endanger the conduct of these operations by the German army. For example, in the autumn of 1944, during the retreat to Riga, the German division crossed the Dvina (both by the bridge and by boat) on a clear sunny day without any opposition from Soviet aviation. Later, Soviet bombers repeatedly attacked Libau, but to no avail.

Even in the spring of 1945, Soviet bombers, attacking the fortified city of Bromberg (Bydgoszcz), dropped bombs aimlessly on residential areas of the city, ignoring the German command post in a separate building, power plant, gas plants and bridges over the river Brahe (Brda). Even later, when the German garrison left Bromberg, the troops were able to withdraw to the north without any opposition from Soviet aviation. Single bombers and light combat aircraft were the only aircraft that operated at night against targets in the forward line of defense.

Thus, during the last years of the war, the scope of the use of bomber aviation in support of ground units increased, and she managed to achieve some success. However, bomber operations never became decisive, even with the increased Soviet numerical superiority and the declining effectiveness of German air resistance. In addition, they affected the shortcomings of the flight personnel training system, and the lack of proper experience, possibly due to the fact that in the past the Soviet command did not pay due attention to this type of aviation.

German commanders believe that over the last two years of the war, the interaction of Soviet bomber aviation with the Navy has improved significantly. In 1943, the Black Sea was the only area where Soviet bombers attacked German port facilities and transport ships during loading, but in 1944-1945. such operations began to be carried out in the Baltic Sea and in the Arctic regions. The attacks were primarily directed against maritime traffic: convoys, supply ships and troop transports; formations of warships and ports were less often attacked.

Particular attention was paid to sea communication from Odessa and Constanta to the Crimea; convoys along the coast of Norway; evacuation of German troops from Latvia; German and Romanian warships based in Constanta; German mine forces operating in the Eastern Baltic (their work was seriously hampered by the actions of Soviet aviation); ports Odessa, Constanta, Riga, Windau (Ventspils), Liebau (Liepaja), Koenigsberg (Kaliningrad), Danzig (Gdansk) and others. At first, these attacks were not very effective due to poor planning and dispersion of forces. Toward the end of the war, they were carried out on a larger scale, were better organized, and reached their highest efficiency in the final stage of the war, when German shipping was practically defenseless.

Naval bombers operated depending on the nature of the task being performed as part of a regiment, squadron or link. The normal height of approach to the target and its attack was considered to be an altitude of 3000-4000 m; bombing was carried out from a horizontal flight over the areas. On very rare occasions, groups Pe-2 carried out low-altitude bombing or dive attack at an angle of approximately 60-70 degrees. The leader of the group attacked first, followed by all the other aircraft one by one. As a rule, 150-250 kg bombs were used, which were dropped from a height of 1000 m. The bombers involved in such operations always had strong fighter cover and carried defensive parachute fragmentation bombs on their board.

At the end of the war, torpedo bombers, usually of the type IL-4 and A-20G "Boston", began to operate at night, performing tasks for setting mines. Such operations, previously very rare, became more and more frequent and were practiced on coastal shipping routes, entrances to port waters, anchorages, and in some cases at the mouths of navigable rivers. Mines were laid at night or during the day in bad weather by single aircraft or in small groups. The flight altitude in this case depended on the type of mines used, which were either British bottom magnetic mines or Soviet-made mines. In very few cases, mainly at the end of the war, Soviet bombers used depth bombs in anti-submarine operations.

Operations against German convoys were combined: they were carried out with the participation of bombers, torpedo bombers, attack aircraft, fighters, and in conjunction with submarines. When approaching the target, formations of aircraft were divided for a simultaneous attack on small groups and attacked from various heights and directions using bombs, small arms and cannon weapons, torpedoes, and sometimes phosphorus bombs.

The reconnaissance aircraft sent to the target area acted as a command post, directing attack aircraft, informing the crews about the nature of damage to targets, the appearance of German fighters, the actions of anti-aircraft artillery, pointing out errors, fixing losses and reporting on the need for rescue operations for the crews of downed aircraft. This allowed the command to respond quickly to the circumstances that arose and required a solution. During such assignments, the Russians, as a rule, carried out blocking German airfields.

Although the Russians used a large air force, German convoy losses were relatively low. This was due in no small part to serious resistance from German fighter aircraft, which in some cases succeeded in forcing the Russians to abandon their attack. For example, on June 17, 1944, about 100 Soviet aircraft (Boston, Il-2, R-40, Yak-9 and) attacked a German convoy near the coast of Norway, consisting of 10 transport ships and 20 escort ships. The attack was carried out in four waves and lasted 25 minutes. After losing 40 aircraft, the Russians were only able to shoot down two German fighters, sink one 1,600-ton transport, and damage another.

In the light of the foregoing, in 1944-1945. Soviet bombing operations over the battlefield and in cooperation with the navy are characterized by the following features.

1. Soviet bomber aviation, including parts of long-range bomber aviation, was used massively to support ground forces, achieving ever-increasing success, but not on the scale that could decide the outcome of the battle.
2. The bombers attacked targets located both in the battlefield area and in the German rear areas. However, until the very end of the war, their passivity against the retreating German troops remained an inexplicable mistake of the Soviet command.
3. Combined punches bombers, attack aircraft and fighters, supported by the ground army, gradually became the main feature of bombing operations.
4. Bombing operations in support of the Soviet Navy were further developed and expanded into northern waters and the Baltic Sea. In addition to bombing and torpedo attacks, the number of bombers engaged in minefield operations was constantly growing. However, the actions of the Soviet bomber aviation did not have a significant impact on German naval operations.

With few exceptions, the actions of Soviet bombers in the German rear were aimed at destroying ground service, as well as against targets whose choice directly or indirectly depended on the interests of ground forces. The opinion of the German field commanders is unanimous - in 1944-1945. there were no significant changes in the actions of Soviet bombers, although their attacks became more intense, massive and effective than in previous years. The level of planning and execution of operations remained unchanged compared to previous years.

Bombing operations in the German rear intensified as early as 1943 and reached their peak in the spring of 1945. Continuous bombing during daylight hours, and sometimes at dusk and at night, against the last German airfields in East Prussia had a huge negative impact on German aviation in this area . The same can be said about the attacks of Soviet bombers on the Baltic ports.

Probably one of the reasons why the Soviet bombers did not achieve more effective results operating in the German rear was the excessive caution of the Russians in this new role for themselves. Sometimes a Soviet aircraft appeared at very high altitude for final reconnaissance, accompanied by a small group of fighters, who had the task of drawing the German fighters into dogfight before the arrival of the main group of bombers. The latter were already approaching on a different course, waiting for a favorable situation and attacking at the most favorable moment for themselves. Tactics of this kind, however, were used relatively rarely.

In 1944-1945. harassing night bombing and attacks on tactical targets in the army's zone of operations played a major role, but in addition, two new significant features appeared in accordance with Western standards: attacks on pseudo-strategic targets and attacks in large groups. No progress has been made in planning and executing night harassment attacks. They remained the most popular method used in the night operations of Soviet aviation in stable areas of the front. Most often, such harassing attacks were carried out by U-2 aircraft. In addition to some destabilization of the supply system, night attacks, and most importantly, exerted continuous moral pressure on the German soldiers, who were under this psychological pressure even during daylight hours. Until the end of the war, no effective remedy was found against such operations.

Night bombing attacks against tactical targets intensified to a large extent and were directed against transportation, troop and defensive installations, bridges and temporary crossings, airfields and headquarters. For example, the Russians attacked the headquarters of the Provisional Army Group "Heinriky" in Northern Hungary in mid-December 1944, or in early 1945 the headquarters of the 1st Aviation Corps, the rear command "Hungary" in Veszprem, Pape, Odenburg (Sopron) and Steinmangen (Schombathell). And at the same time, the accuracy of the hits was low, so the results of the attacks were insignificant, which is confirmed by the author himself, who at that time was in Steinmangen.

Supporting ground operations, Soviet bombers made numerous raids to cities like Sevastopol, Lvov, Riga, Dvina, Libau (Liepaja) and later Koenigsberg (Kaliningrad) and Danzig (Gdansk). At the same time, the intensity and scale of attacks on German airfields, both in the front line and in the German rear, increased. For example, in September 1944, about 3200 aircraft participated in 17 bombing raids, in addition, approximately 200 aircraft participated in 12 partisan supply operations. And all this excluding actions in the frontline. The results of these operations were varied, but in general they became more and more effective.

Some of these flights were carried out by single aircraft, while others, in order to increase the effectiveness of the strike, were carried out as part of units. Single aircraft usually attacked targets close to the front line, and in the depths of the German rear, bombers operated as part of a group, but exceptions to this rule were sometimes noted. At the end of the war, more and more attacks by single aircraft were supplanted by raids in groups.

An increase in the intensity of night bombing operations aimed at pseudo-strategic targets was first noted in 1944-1945. In the spring of 1944, such raids took place against Finnish cities. Their goal is to break the morale of the Finnish people. Later similar attacks were made on Konigsberg, Budapest and other big cities. These raids were carried out, as a rule, as part of subdivisions and exclusively by long-range bomber aircraft. Compared to the nighttime bomber attacks of the Western Allies, the results achieved by the Russians were not so impressive. On the one hand, these operations showed a significant improvement in tactics compared to previous years, but at the same time, until the end of the war, the Russians were not able to overcome shortcomings in organization, pilot training and combat practice.

The tactics of night bombing operations as part of the units largely corresponded to Western standards and, in general, were of the following nature. Separate units participating in the operation took to the air from different bases located along the front line. Their aiming at the target was carried out by radio direction finding, dead reckoning and orientation along the terrain, so that the aircraft could enter the combat course as close to the target as possible. Usually, maneuvers that make it difficult for the enemy to determine the true route of the aircraft were not used.

The planes of each wave approached the target in close formation. The direction and altitude of the flight were determined in the order for each individual unit. As a rule, the attack was carried out from a height of 4000-5000 m, the withdrawal - at an altitude of up to 2000 m. The duration of the attack of the air division according to the charter was approximately 20 minutes, but usually the attack lasted longer. The guidance planes were supposed to mark the target with flares a minute before the start time of the bombing and fire rockets again every three to four minutes. The use of guidance aircraft equipped with special equipment of the Rotterdam type (on-board navigation equipment and equipment for "blind" flight) was not observed.

The type of bombs used depended on the nature of the target being hit, but preference was given to 50- and 100-kg bombs; the use of bombs weighing 250 and 500 kg was relatively rare. Usually, bombs were dropped in series: for example, if an aircraft carried ten 100-kg bombs on board, then they dropped at intervals of one to two seconds could cover a strip 300 wide and 1000 m long.

Strong anti-aircraft barrage fire often led to premature bomb drops. To evade fire from the ground, Soviet bombers either dived, losing up to 1,000 meters of altitude, or carried out turns while maintaining their flight altitude. Prior to 1944, night fighters did not escort long-range bombers, but covered base areas to ensure the safe landing of returning bombers.

Depending on the nature of the target and the distance to it, attacks were sometimes repeated, but not as part of a unit, but by single aircraft. The attacks were repeated after refueling and replenishment of the bomb cargo. In such cases, the flight sometimes lasted from eight to twelve hours. Flights of this type took place both on bright and dark nights, but not when the weather conditions were really bad. Other than a few isolated torpedo-bombing strikes and mine-laying missions, no Soviet bombers were seen operating over the sea at night.

Based on the available data on the actions of the Soviet night bomber aviation in 1944-1945. can be rated as follows.

1. Mostly harassment raids were carried out, attacks on tactical targets, and, unlike in previous years, pseudo-strategic operations were carried out.
2. The tactics used in night harassing strikes and attacks on tactical targets remained the same, but unlike in previous years, they were carried out with the involvement of large forces and became more effective. These attacks made up the bulk of the night operations carried out by the bombers.
3. Since the spring of 1944, Soviet night bombers began to carry out raids against pseudo-strategic targets, but the scale of such operations was insignificant. Despite the good organization of the raids, they were not effective enough.
4. The raids were carried out not only by single aircraft, but also as part of units in accordance with Western tactics, especially during pseudo-strategic operations.
5. Poor training of flight personnel and insufficient combat practice, as well as unproven tactics for using night bombers, led to the fact that the results obtained did not correspond to the efforts made.

The few data we have show that even in 1944-1945. the Russians tried not to use their bomber aircraft in difficult meteorological conditions. A clear preference was given to flights on not very dark nights. Almost all harassing raids in the front line were carried out in almost any weather conditions.

During the last years of the war cooperation between bomber aviation and other branches of aviation has improved markedly and has the following features. When interacting with day fighters, Soviet bombers always received appropriate protection in the form of direct or indirect escorts. The bomber units remained in formation even when attacked by German fighters. Night bombers were covered by fighter aircraft over their bases during takeoff and landing. Toward the end of the war, night fighters operated in the target area, and also carried out attacks on the positions of German anti-aircraft artillery and searchlights. Joint operations with attack aircraft and fighter-bombers have increased in intensity, concentration and effectiveness.

As before, the U-2 was used most often for nighttime harassing bombing attacks. It was perfectly suited for this purpose, as the aircraft was easy to fly, requiring a minimum of training and maintenance. In addition, its ability to take off and land on small, unprepared sites allowed for multiple flights during the night.

The following types of aircraft were used to carry out standard bombing operations: Li-2, Il-4, Pe-2, TB-3, TB-7 (Pe-8), Mitchell V-25, Douglas A-20 (Boston III), as well as the only Soviet bomber launched into serial production during the war years. Of these types, the TB-3 and TB-7, being obsolete, were used only at night, and the Boston was also used as a night fighter. The most massive were IL-4, Li-2, Pe-2 and Douglas "Boston". The above types of aircraft could be used primarily for tactical missions. But they turned out to be too easy to carry out strategic operations.

The new Tu-2 had a higher speed and ceiling than the IL-4. This bomber met the requirements of the Eastern Front, but built in insufficient quantities, could not have a significant impact on the course of the air war. The opinion of Soviet aces pilots regarding this aircraft was ambiguous. In the last two years of the war, Soviet bomber aviation did not reach the level that was expected from it. This can be explained, first of all, by the use of aircraft that did not fully meet the conditions of modern warfare.

Used in 1944-1945. bombs and the tactics of their use have not changed significantly. In some cases, the use of German captured bombs weighing 1000 kg for night bombing was noted. For this, Li-2 aircraft were equipped with special bomb locks. Permitted bomb loads were often exceeded. It could be assumed that the quality of the fuses improved, as the number of unexploded bombs decreased.

Soviet long-range bombers often used bomb containers. These containers (known as PRAV) were filled with small caliber bombs that spilled out some time after being dropped. Another innovation was a projectile similar to a jet: it was fired at night from U-2 aircraft at an altitude of 500-600 meters. In flight, this projectile did not leave any traces of fire behind it and was practically silent.

1. Bomber aviation has made some progress in the performance of combat missions, but has not been able to catch up with fighter and ground attack aircraft.
2. The bomber crews had some shortcomings, but, in general, their morale, aggressiveness and self-confidence increased.
3. The organization of bomber aviation has changed slightly, the number of units has been constantly increasing; the distribution of forces, including long-range bomber aviation, was determined by the direction of the main attack of the ground offensive and was based on the principle of concentration.
4. The main task of Soviet bomber aviation remained to support the actions of ground forces both near the front line and in the German rear. Tactical principles that have justified themselves in previous years have been used further. The interaction of bombers with ground forces has reached a high level.
5. The use of bombers against the German navy and merchant fleets in the Baltic and northern seas intensified, and at the end of the war their impact proved fatal to the weakly protected German transport ships in the Baltic Sea.
6. Soviet bomber strikes on airfields significantly reduced the activity of German aviation and became one of the factors that caused the "paralysis" of the German Air Force in the spring of 1945.
7. Soviet bombers rarely made pseudo-strategic raids during the daytime. At night, however, they carried out such tasks with increasing intensity and power, but with no noticeable success. Most often, such raids were directed against large cities, which were considered important targets, both because of their size and administrative functions.
8. The capabilities and effectiveness of night harassment raids and attacks against tactical targets have increased.
9. Interaction with other types of aviation of the Red Army Air Force has improved. Fighter escorts were constantly organized, and joint strikes, in which bombers, attack aircraft and fighter-bombers took part, were carried out with increasing intensity and with great effect.

No progress has been made in the development of aviation technology, weapons and equipment. This was one of the reasons why the results of the activities of the Soviet bomber aviation were limited. During 1944-1945. Soviet bomber aviation has made some progress in both day and night operations. Among the reasons why the Russians could not achieve as impressive results in this area as their Western allies was that the Soviet High Command neglected the development of bomber aircraft for many years.

The article is written based on the materials of the book by V. Schwabedissen "Stalin's Falcons". Analysis of the actions of Soviet aviation in 1941-1945, Minsk, Harvest, 2001, p. 309-322.

Airplanes appeared "bomber" requirements for combat aircraft projects. In particular, at the competition of 1912 in the Russian Empire, it was regulated that the airplane provided "the greatest convenience for handling firearms and throwing bombs."

World War I[ | ]

At the beginning of the war, bombing from airplanes was more of a deterrent. The role of the bombers was performed by light reconnaissance aircraft, the pilots of which took several small bombs with them. They dropped them manually, aiming at the peephole. Such raids were of a random nature and were not coordinated with the actions of the ground forces. The first bombardment of Paris was carried out on August 30, 1914 by Lieutenant Ferdinand von Hiddesen from a Rumpler 3C aircraft, dropping 4 hand grenades. One woman died in the attack. On November 4, 1914, the Gotha LE2 crew, piloted by Lieutenant Kaspar and Oblt. Roos, made the first raid on English territory, dropping two bombs on Dover.

Interwar period[ | ]

After the war, the development of bombers as a class of air force equipment and bomber aviation slowed down: a revolution took place in Russia and the Civil War began, the defeated Germany and Austria were forbidden to develop military aviation, and the leading Western countries focused on building a system to limit the arms race and overcome the economic crisis. Nevertheless, aviation continued to develop. The main qualities of bombers were considered to be carrying capacity and flight range. Speed ​​was not given importance: multi-engine aircraft were supposed to protect numerous machine-gun installations from fighters. Strict requirements were put forward for takeoff and landing at poorly equipped airfields.

"Hainaidi" - a representative of the first post-war generation of bombers (1923)

Until the end of the 1920s, the biplane scheme dominated bomber aviation: a biplane box made of wooden wings, a fixed landing gear, and open machine gun mounts. These were: the French LeO-20, the English "Virginia" and "Hayford" and many other aircraft. Already in 1925, the USSR made the first flight of the TB-1 (ANT-4) - the first multi-engine serial all-metal monoplane bomber with a cantilever wing. These solutions in the design of bombers have become classic. Many interesting experiments are associated with TB-1: in 1933, experimental launches with powder boosters took place, in 1935, experiments were carried out on refueling in the air, and TB-1 was also used in a composite link: two I-16 fighters were suspended from the bomber.

B-17 bomber prototype

Progress in aircraft construction also made it possible to build heavy four-engine aircraft that were not inferior in speed to "high-speed" twin-engine bombers. This was achieved through the installation of powerful and light supercharged engines, the introduction of variable pitch propellers, an increase in wing loading due to the use of wing landing mechanization, a decrease in the drag coefficient and an improvement in the aerodynamic quality of the aircraft due to the use of smooth skin, smooth fuselage contours and a “thin” wing. The first heavy bomber of the new generation was the four-engined Boeing B-17. An experimental aircraft took off on July 28, 1935.

Simultaneously with the improvement of the "classic" bomber in the 1930s, a new type of aircraft appeared - "dive bomber". The most famous dive bombers are Junkers Yu 87 and Pe-2.

The Second World War[ | ]

In total, bombers of about 100 different models participated in the battles. The greatest variety of models was in the class of twin-engine bombers. They were conditionally divided into "front" and "distant". The former struck to a depth of 300-400 km from the front line and along the front line of the enemy's defense, the latter made raids behind enemy lines. Among frontline bombers include the Soviet Pe-2, English De Havilland Mosquito, American Douglas A-20 Havoc, Martin B-26 Marauder, Douglas A-26 Invader. To distant include the Soviet Il-4, English Vickers Wellington, American North American B-25 Mitchell, German Heinkel He 111 and Junkers Yu 88.

In combat operations, single-engine bombers were also used to support the ground forces: Fairey Battle, Su-2, Junkers Ju 87, etc. As practice has shown, they operated effectively only in conditions of air supremacy of their aircraft, as well as in attacks on weakly protected anti-aircraft artillery objects. As a result, by the end of the war, the production of light single-engine bombers was generally curtailed.

Unlike Germany and the USSR, where front-line aviation developed first of all, in the USA and Great Britain much attention was paid to the development of heavy four-engine bombers capable of destroying the enemy’s economic centers and disorganizing its industry with massive strikes. With the outbreak of war in the UK, the Avro Lancaster was adopted, which became the main heavy aircraft of the Royal Air Force (RAF) Bomber Command.

The basis of American long-range heavy bomber aviation was the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress (Flying Fortress), the fastest and highest-altitude bomber in the world at the beginning of the war, and the Consolidated B-24 Liberator (Liberator). Despite the fact that it was inferior to the B-17 in speed and ceiling, the manufacturability of its design made it possible to establish the production of individual aircraft components at non-aviation factories. So, at the automobile factories of the Ford Motor Company Corporation, they produced fuselages for these bombers.

The pinnacle in the development of heavy piston bombers was the Boeing B-29 Superfortress, created in 1942 under the guidance of designer A. Jordanov. Powerful engines and perfect aerodynamics provided the aircraft with a speed of up to 575 km / h, a ceiling of 9700 m and a range of 5000 km with 4000 kg of bombs. He became the first carrier of nuclear weapons: on August 6, 1945, a bomber with its own name "Enola Gay" dropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima, and on August 9, the city of Nagasaki underwent a nuclear bombardment.

Since 1944, jet bomber aircraft have been involved in hostilities. The first jet fighter-bomber was the Me-262A2, a bomber modification of the first jet fighter, created in 1942 in Germany. Me-262A2 carried two 500 kg bombs on an external sling. The first Ar-234 jet bomber was also built in Germany. Its speed was 742 km/h, combat radius 800 km, ceiling 10000 m. Ar-234 could use bombs weighing up to 1400 kg.

The first carriers of guided weapons were the German bombers Do-217 K, which destroyed the Italian battleship Roma in 1943 with guided bombs. The He-111 bomber, obsolete by the end of the war, became the first strategic missile carrier: it launched V-1 cruise missiles at targets in the British Isles.

cold war [ | ]

At the end of World War II, the flight characteristics of bombers increased so much that hitting anti-aircraft guns with their shells became a real problem - the consumption of ammunition to destroy one high-flying high-speed bomber was almost equal to its cost. The appearance in 1945 of nuclear weapons and the prospect of the early adoption of jet bombers with even higher performance required an increase in the effectiveness of air defense to a level inaccessible to cannon artillery; anti-aircraft guided missiles (SAMs) became a way out of the situation.

The first jet and turboprop, intercontinental and supersonic bombers[ | ]

In connection with the increase in flight range, the classification of bombers has changed slightly: strategic they began to call machines with an intercontinental range of the order of 10-15 thousand km, bombers with a range of up to 10,000 km became "long-range", sometimes they are called average(or medium-range), and vehicles that operate in the tactical rear of the enemy and in the front line began to be called tactical. However, countries that did not become owners of bombers with intercontinental range continued to call their long-range bombers strategic (example: Chinese H-6 bomber, a copy of the Tu-16). Also, the classification of bombers was seriously influenced by the views of the leadership on their use and construction. For example, the front-line bomber F-111 received a "fighter" name.

The first bomber with an intercontinental range was the Convair B-36 built in 1946 in the USA, which at the same time became the last strategic bomber with piston engines. It had an unusual appearance due to the combined power plant: 6 piston engines with pusher propellers and 4 jet engines installed in pairs under the wing. But even with jet engines, the piston machine could not reach speeds of more than 680 km / h, which made it very vulnerable to high-speed jet fighters adopted for service. Despite the fact that by the standards of modern aviation, the B-36 did not last long (the last bomber was withdrawn from service in 1959), machines of this type were widely used as flying laboratories.

B-58: The first supersonic bomber.

He was supposed to completely replace the B-52 subsonic bombers in the Strategic Air Command. However, a spectacular demonstration in May 1960 of the capabilities of Soviet air defense systems to combat high-altitude high-speed targets confirmed the fears of the US leadership in the vulnerability of both subsonic and advanced supersonic bombers. As a result, the B-70 bomber program as a weapon system was closed. In the early 60s, they tried to resume development, but successful tests of US intercontinental ballistic missiles and the high cost of the aircraft finally buried the project.

In the Soviet Union, after N. Khrushchev came to power, who believed in the omnipotence of rocket weapons, work on intercontinental bombers was stopped.

Unlike the United States, the Soviet leadership did not lower the altitude of the bombers in service and concentrated its efforts on the development of new multi-mode aircraft. August 30, 1969 made the first flight of the Soviet multi-mode long-range bomber with a variable sweep wing Tu-22M. Initially, this aircraft was developed by the Tupolev Design Bureau on its own initiative as a deep modernization of the generally unsuccessful Tu-22 aircraft, but as a result, the new aircraft had practically nothing in common with it. The Tu-22M has a large bomb load of 24,000 kg, comparable only to the bomb load of the B-52.

The American leadership initiated the development of a new multi-mode bomber to replace the B-52 only in 1969. The B-1A bomber made its first flight on December 23, 1974 in Palmdale (USA). The aircraft was a low-wing aircraft with a variable geometry wing and a smooth articulation of the wing and fuselage. But in 1977, after a cycle of flight tests, the program was stopped: successes in the creation of cruise missiles, as well as successful research work in the field of stealth (stealth technology), once again called into question the need for low-altitude air defense breakthrough aircraft. The development of a multi-mode bomber was resumed only in 1981, but already as an intermediate aircraft, before the stealth strategic bomber entered service. The first flight of the updated B-1B Lancer was made on October 18, 1984, and production vehicles entered service only in 1986. Thus, the B-1 became the most “explored” aircraft, setting a kind of record: from the moment the design began in 1970 until it entered service 16 years have passed.

At the end of 2007, the Russian Air Force formulated requirements for a new long-range bomber (the PAK DA project). The aircraft will be created by Tupolev Design Bureau using stealth technology. The first flight of the new aircraft is scheduled for 2015.

In 1990, the US Department of Defense developed a new program to create the latest models of military equipment, which provided for the construction of a limited number of pieces of equipment (for example, to form one squadron). As a result, the production of the B-2 after the construction of 21 aircraft was discontinued. As of December 2008, the USAF had: 20 B-2A stealth bombers, 66 B-1B supersonic bombers, and 76 B-52H subsonic bombers.

China also has strategic aviation, which is armed with 120 H-6 (Tu-16) long-range bombers, and France, in which 64 Mirage 2000N fighter-bombers solve strategic tasks.

tactical aviation[ | ]

In modern tactical aviation, the difference between a tactical (front-line) bomber, fighter-bomber and attack aircraft is sometimes very blurred. Many combat aircraft designed for air strikes, although they look like fighters, have limited capabilities for dogfighting. Obviously, the characteristics that allow the aircraft to effectively strike from low altitudes are not suitable for a fighter to achieve air superiority. At the same time, many fighters, despite the fact that they were created for air combat, are also used as bombers. The main differences of the bomber are still a long range and limited air combat capabilities. Modern low-altitude tactical bombers (for example, the Su-34) are also significantly superior to fighters in terms of armor protection.

In the air forces of technologically advanced countries, the tasks of tactical bombers are usually performed by multi-role fighters (fighter-bombers). So, in the United States, the last specialized tactical bomber F-117 was withdrawn from service on April 22, 2008. Bomber missions in the US Air Force are carried out by F-15E and F-16 fighter-bombers, and in the Navy - by carrier-based F / A-18 fighter-bombers.

Standing apart in this row is Russia, which is armed with Su-24 tactical bombers and now replacing them with Su-34.

Strategic theater aviation[ | ]

The so-called Tu-22M long-range bombers, designed mainly to destroy aircraft carrier squadrons and strategic targets in the continental and oceanic zones, i.e., in the theater of operations. Tu-22M occupies an intermediate tactical and strategic niche between intercontinental strategic and tactical bombers. For this reason, the class of combat aircraft formed by the Tu-22M is also often called intermediate. Like any strategic bomber, the Tu-22M is capable of carrying a rather heavy bomb load, although less than that of an intercontinental bomber, and can carry the same long-range cruise missiles as the Tu-160 or Tu-95, though in smaller numbers.