Laundry detergent is an all-purpose household detergent. It consists of a variety of synthetic substances and compounds. The chemical composition of the washing powder depends on its type and purpose (for colored fabrics, wool, bleaching). Therefore, powders are universal or special.

Chemicals required for all types of powders

The basic basis of all washing powders is surfactants (surfactants). These active ingredients are used for the production of not only washing, but also cleaning powders. The surfactant not only removes contamination from the surface, but can also be used as a deactivator. They decontaminate radioactive elements on various items: clothes, dishes, premises.

Surfactants are organic compounds that, by their properties, are both safe for humans and pose a threat to human health by accumulating in high concentrations in internal organs and systems.

The most common surfactant in laundry detergent is alkylbenzenesulfonate. It is a free-flowing powder in the form of granules, without a pungent odor, yellow or light brown in color. The substance belongs to the non-ionic surfactant group, which makes the washing powder “gentle” when washing and gives it the following advantages:

• immunity and resistance to water hardness;
• high quality washing when using a small amount of powder;
• effectiveness of synthetic detergent at low water temperatures;
• containment of large foaming;
• providing an antistatic effect;
• preventing color loss
• hypoallergenic (compatibility with the skin).

The second important component of washing powder is salts - complex substances that, in aqueous solutions, ensure the breakdown of chemical compounds and their dissolution. In the production of detergents, two types of salts are most often used - sulfate and sodium chloride.

Sodium sulfate in washing powder is no more than 10% and acts as a thinner. It is the sodium salt of sulfurous acid in the form of colorless crystals. It is used only for non-concentrated powders.

In the production of compact synthetic detergents, salt is used in small quantities or not at all.

The composition of the powder includes sodium silicate - a finely dispersed substance of white color, odorless and tasteless. Its main function is to bind contaminants (dust) and create an alkaline pH environment. Sodium silicate is an effective adsorbent. But the salt of silicic acid, when it comes into contact with the skin, can cause allergic reactions, and inside - eating disorders.

Another element that is used in the manufacture of synthetic detergent is soda. Its types, which are included in the chemical formula of washing powder:

• sodium bicarbonate (baking soda);
• sodium carbonate (soda ash or laundry);
• sodium hydroxide (caustic soda).

Soda helps to remove fat from tissues, softens water, reduces its hardness.

Additional components in the composition of the washing powder

Laundry powder consists of a variety of additional chemical components that determine its narrow application.

Cationic surfactants

It is an ammonium salt based on natural fatty acids. It does not have pronounced detergent properties, but is used as a potent bactericidal additive. Therefore, cationic surfactants are added to the composition of powders for washing baby clothes.

Moreover, they are compatible with various fragrances, make all types of fabric fibers soft. When re-moistened, the fabric absorbs water well.

Substances that bind magnesium and calcium ions

Zeolites are glassy minerals with a pearlescent sheen. They are able to absorb and release water depending on environmental conditions (humidity, temperature).

Zeolites are substitutes for phosphates in powder, act as adsorbents and catalysts for chemical reactions.

Sodium tripolyphosphate is an additive for synthetic detergents. Fluffy white powder or in the form of granules. Freely soluble in water. Its properties:

• regulates the pH environment;
• prevents the formation of sediment in hard water;
• deactivates toxic substances;
• disinfects fabrics and surfaces;
• cleanses and whitens.

Trilon B or disodium salt of acetic acid - white powder or crystals. Soluble in alkali and water. The chemical provides the formation of foam and the cleansing of dirt from the fibers of the fabrics. This is an important additive that creates the right soapy environment for any water hardness. The additive discolors stains on various types of fabrics.

Citrates are salts of citric acid. Substances prevent changes in the pH environment.

Polycarboxylates

Polycarboxylates are water-soluble polymers of carbon. They are part of phosphate-free washing powders. Possess active cleaning and washing ability. Substances eliminate dirt, easily transfer it, prevent darkening of paint on fabrics. Polycarboxylates prevent the formation of sediment and scale.

Defoamers

Defoamer is an antifoam agent of high activity and compatibility with other components of the powder. It is used in the manufacture of detergents for automatic washing with subsequent use in front (horizontal) loading washing machines.

Positive qualities of defoamers:

• interact with different types of surfactants;
• active at any temperature;
• operate in water of varying degrees of hardness;
• quickly distributed over the entire surface, do not precipitate;
• do not accumulate in the body, as they have low parameters of chemical and physical oxygen consumption.

Antiresorbents

These are chemical compounds that, when washed, prevent the reverse penetration of dirty particles from water into fabrics. They also prevent dullness and discoloration, and on whites they prevent graying.

Polymers increase the permeability of tissues with air, thus reducing the accumulation of static electricity.

Enzymes

Another name is enzymes. This is a bioadditive that is a catalyst for chemical and biological processes. With the help of enzymes, stubborn stains and dirt are removed.

Protein enzyme classes:

• proteases (alkaline enzymes) - remove protein contaminants;
• lipases - neutralize oils and fats;
• amylase - remove stains containing starch;
• cellulases - saturate the color of the fabric, remove the smallest particles of dirt, soften the fibers, retain whiteness;
• keratinases - remove the remnants of the skin epithelium.

Fragrances and fragrances

These are synthetic or semi-synthetic compositions with a complex chemical composition. They complement and enrich the laundry detergent with fragrance and freshness. Dry fragrance is presented in the form of granules on a water-soluble basis. The color of the granules is varied. It determines the appearance of the powder. The fragrance retains the smell of the detergent unchanged throughout the entire shelf life.

Bleach powder

The powder may contain bleach. They are of two types - optical and chemical. They create a convenient function - simultaneous washing and bleaching.

Optical brighteners

These are fluorescent bleaches. The essence of their action is the absorption of ultraviolet rays and their transformation into light waves of violet or blue.

Scope of optical brightener in washing powder:

• cotton fabric;
• natural silk;
• synthetics;
• fur;
• leather.

Optical brightener is suitable for fabrics of any color. It gives whiteness to colorless fibers, and fabrics with prints acquire a bright, saturated and contrasting color. Its content in the powder ranges from 0.01 to 0.1%, depending on the type of bleach.

Oxygen-containing bleaching agents

Another name is peroxide bleach. Types of chemical compounds:

• perhydrol - hydrogen peroxide;
• persalt - sodium percarbonate;
• hydroperite - potassium peroxodisulfate.

These compounds contain oxygen atoms. When water is heated, the bleach releases O 2 atoms, which oxidize the dirt and discolor the fabric. T water heating temperature for maximum peroxide activity is 80-90°C. Therefore, this type of bleach is intended for those types of fabrics that are subject to washing at high temperatures (boiling) - cotton, linen.

TAED

It is a whitening activator. It is actively used to remove contaminants from a wide variety of fabrics. TAED effectively removes stains from tea, coffee, wine, grease, coloring vegetables and fruits. The mechanism of action is the chemical decomposition of contaminants on the fabric surface due to the oxidation reaction.

Previously, when washing at high temperatures, such activators were used: PBS (sodium perborate) and PCS (sodium percarbonate). At low temperatures they are not effective.

TAED (tetraacetylethylenediamine) exhibits chemical activity already at a water temperature of 20-40°C. The pH conditions for the action of the activator is 9-10.5. With a decrease in these indicators, the bioavailability of the substance does not decrease. The higher the concentration, the stronger the whitening effect.

TAED removes impurities without affecting the natural color of fabrics. Activators are used for both hand and machine washing.

According to the formula tables for washing powders, the content of activators is different:

• detergent with low education of the European type for automatic machines - 1.7 parts by weight;
• highly concentrated laundry detergent - 3.8 parts by weight of TAED;
• universal powder - 1.7 parts by weight.

On average, the number of activators in weight percent in the production of powder is from 1.5 to 5. This does not affect the cost of production, but improves consumer qualities.

The chemical composition of a synthetic detergent has a similar consistency, regardless of what substances were used in production. The density of the washing powder is 900 g per 1 liter. When choosing products, it is necessary to take into account the direction of use - the type of fabrics, the degree of contamination of the fibers, the washing mode (manual or automatic). The average dosage of powder for cleaning 5 kg of laundry is 120-150 g.

Business in the segment of cleaning products, according to experts, is considered a fairly promising area. According to surveys, this market is in constant development today, as the consumer tries to choose products that are characterized by excellent quality and good use effect. And without a doubt, powder can be attributed to this niche - they wash everything and always, despite the economic crises. These are excellent prerequisites for opening the production of washing powder in Russia.

Having decided to organize a business for the production of synthetic detergents (SMC), you need to be prepared for the fact that in the first couple of years a novice entrepreneur is unlikely to be able to “conquer” the entire niche. The fact is that the lion's share of all powders presented on store shelves belongs to foreign brands. As for domestic products, here the market is "captured" by several large manufacturers. Of course, it is unlikely to compete with them, and therefore, at first we rely on budget products, which will be produced by a mini-workshop and delivered to small retail stores in a particular region.

It is also beneficial to launch a mini plant for the production of washing powder for the following reasons:
The production technology is simplified to the maximum.

If you buy semi-finished raw materials, it will be possible to produce a wide range of products.
Mini-automatic machines are reconfigured in such a way that in the shortest possible time you can re-profil your workshop, starting to produce a completely different type of cleaning products.

And in order for the washing powder production workshop to function without failures in the future, it will not hurt to work out its business plan, which will reflect all upcoming expenses and a marketing scheme will be thought out.

Documentation of business

It is impossible to start the manufacture of washing powders until the enterprise is documented. And it's quite a hassle.

What will be required for this?

Pass an inspection by representatives of Rospotrebnadzor.
Based on the results of the check, obtain a certificate of state registration.
Through sanitary supervision, obtain a declaration for all raw materials used.
To certify products that will be manufactured within the walls of a mini-factory.
In order not to waste your own strength, you can connect a qualified lawyer to the case, who will collect all the necessary documents.

Washing powder manufacturing process

The technology for the production of washing powder is complex only in terms of formula development. This is what needs to be given special attention, since its detergent and cleaning properties will depend on the composition of the product. Enterprises keep their recipes in the strictest confidence, and therefore, at this stage of business planning, the services of a qualified technologist cannot be dispensed with.

Various surfactants, binders, detergents and bleaching agents are used as raw materials in the manufacturing process of washing powder.
The following main components are used here:
sulfanol powder,
surfactant,
soap bar.

Raw materials are quite expensive in price, but despite this, it is quite affordable. And it is better to choose the supplier that is closest to the factory.

The production of phosphate-free washing powder is as follows:
All ingredients are mixed.
The resulting paste is sprayed through special spray nozzles.
Dried drops of liquid instantly turn into dry powder granules.
The remaining dry ingredients are added to the powder.
The finished product is packed.

Technical equipment of the workshop

If you buy equipment for the production of washing powder, fully automated and equipped, then there should not be any problems with the implementation of the process. There are a lot of options for all kinds of workshop equipment on the market, which vary in productivity and degree of automation.
What especially pleases many novice entrepreneurs is the relatively low cost of equipment. A line with a capacity of up to 500 kg / day costs no more than 250,000 rubles. And the price of more powerful equipment (up to 1.5 tons / day) is 500,000 rubles.

Low-power equipment is equipped almost identically. And the "middle" laundry detergent production line consists of the following sections:
Area for storage of liquid and dry raw materials.
Dosing area for liquid and dry components.
Powder spraying and drying area.

To the main machine for the production of powdered SMS, you will also need to purchase a packaging machine. But this is only if it is planned to pack the finished product in separate packages. But in order to avoid additional expenses, many do it easier - they sell the powder mass by weight. But finding buyers for such products will not be easy.

Profitability of the planned business

The mini-workshop will only start to make a profit when the produced powder wins the trust of consumers. And it is still unknown how long it will take. If funds are available, advertising on TV, radio and newspapers can be considered. But it doesn't make sense for a young enterprise to invest in large-scale marketing campaigns.

Taking into account the price of equipment, raw materials and rental of premises, it will take at least 1,000,000 rubles to organize a business. The main items of expenditure will fall on the purchase of components, the development of recipes and the preparation of the premises for operation.

If we talk about the profitability of a business, then everything depends on the pricing policy of a particular region. Budget powder is supplied by retail outlets at a price of at least 50 rubles / kg. At the same time, the cost of production is less than the selling price by 30-50%. And these are good indicators of profitability.

Section of Organic Chemistry

Determination of the composition of washing powders

Done: student

11 A class

Titkova Maria

Supervisor:

Candidate of Chemical Sciences SamGTU

Konovalov V.V.

Samara, 2010

Introduction

1. Washing powder today

1.1 Historical outline of the stages of creation of washing powders

1.2 Industrial production of washing powders

1.3 Composition of washing powder

1.4 Biological and ecological role of washing powders

1.5 Methods for determining the physico-chemical properties of washing powders

2 X-ray fluorescence analysis

2.1 History of RFA creation

2.2 How it works

2.3 Scope of XRF

3 Experiment

3.2 Tasks

3.3 Results

Conclusion

Introduction

Even 10-15 years ago, the name of the synthetic detergents (SMC) used, especially washing powders, could easily be listed: Astra, Era, Lotus, since their set was not very diverse. Today, the chemical industry offers us a wide range of SMS that are diverse in composition, effect, and properties. Television advertising is saturated with this kind of information, but it is extremely difficult for an ordinary person to navigate such a rich variety of media on offer.

The main indicator of the quality of washing powders is the ability to wash dirt well, which can be measured rigorously. But what exactly provides this ability? When hand washed, powders often cause irritation on the hands of a person. Is laundry detergent safe? Often, we simply do not hesitate to buy household chemicals in stores, rightly believing that since this product has hit the counter, it means that it is not dangerous either for people or for the environment. But, unfortunately, we cannot say this, modern manufacturers are chasing the improvement of detergent properties, which most often leads to an increase in the number of phosphates and surfactants, which are not only harmless, but also dangerous to human health and nature.

In our work, we want to find out what the powder actually consists of, its ecological and biological role, and how its components can be determined in general.

This work is relevant in connection with the request of society in the field of minimizing factors that negatively affect human health. Our research reveals the safest powder for home use. In addition, we will learn how to determine the physico-chemical composition of powders. And we will conduct an experiment based on X-ray fluorescence analysis, which we will talk about later. And of course, it’s better to start with the history of washing powder.

Another goal of our work is to gain skills in working with modern analytical equipment and evaluate the possibilities of using these devices, in particular, to determine the composition of washing powders. As an example of such a device, we took the EDX-800HS from Shimatzu (Japan), which is located at the Department of Chemical Technology of Oil and Gas Processing, Faculty of Chemical Technology of Samara State Technical University.

1. Washing powder today

1.1 Historical outline of the stages of creation of washing powders

The beginning of history was laid by the 28-year-old Fritz Henkel. On September 26, 1876, together with partners, he founded Henkel & Cie in Aaachen. The first product that was created within the walls of the enterprise is a washing powder based on sodium silicate. With the advent of the new product, an innovative approach was applied for that time - at that time, similar products were sold only by weight, and Henkel powder was packaged in convenient bags.

A year later, soap powder appeared on the Aachen market, the production of which was successfully established by Ernst Siglin. Ernst experimented for a long time and conducted experiments in which Richard Thompson also participated. They were able to turn the soap into powder and decide to start Dr. Thompson's Seifenpulver GmbH, located in Düsseldorf. The company owned the exclusive right to sell its products in Germany, Holland and Belgium.

In 1878, the first washing powder in Germany under the brand name Henkel's Bleich-Soda (Bleaching Soda) was born. The main differences between the new product and its competitors were affordable price and convenient, durable packaging. The powder contained sodium silicate and soda, and its formula was invented by Fritz Henkel.The soda powder was supplied by Matthes & Weber, which would later be bought by Henkel in 1917.

The turnover of the company is steadily growing, and for further development it is necessary to expand. Henkel decides to move production to Düsseldorf on the Rhine. Düsseldorf has been the gateway to Germany's most important industrial area, the Ruhr, since the 19th century.

In 1879, Fritz "Henkel" redeems the shares of the remaining partners, and becomes the sole owner of the Henkel company. Meanwhile, sales of Henkel bleaching soda were growing at such a pace that a year later, the rented factory in Düsseldorf could no longer cope with production volumes. Henkel, without thinking twice, decides to build his own factory, which would adjoin the railway tracks. A year later, Henkel acquires a piece of land in Düsseldorf-Oberblick, and in October the construction of a new factory begins.

In 1883, the company's product range was expanded, now in addition to the main product - washing powder, blue linen, starch, liquid cleaning agent, cleaning paste, beef extract and hair pomade are added.

Two years later, Henkel took part in the exhibition outside of Germany for the first time. At the then international industrial exhibition in Antwerp, the company was awarded an honorary diploma. At the same time, the company expands its territorial presence, opens the first branch in Austria. A year earlier, Carl Pathé moved to Vienna to become the manager of the new representative office.

Two years later, Henkel carried out the first commercial transactions with buyers in the Netherlands and Switzerland. And at the same time, a new milestone in sales development was opened: the organization of sales in the field. Approximately four times a year, company representatives visited customers. At the very beginning, train routes passed through the Baltic Sea region in Germany, and then through the eastern and central part of Germany. By 1986, a network of Henkel representatives was already established, working throughout Germany.

In 1890, Henkel's sales reached almost half a million marks, and the total output at that time was already 1973 tons. The company had grown to such an extent that it was time to think about building a new warehouse.

In 1893, 17-year-old Fritz Henkel joined Henkel as a trainee. Having studied and received professional training in the field of commerce, he becomes a faithful assistant in his father's affairs. The young Fritz was able to build a solid foundation for Henkel's products and continue to market the products. In addition, his duties also included the organization of maintenance in the field.

The company is starting to have some problems. In 1897, all the products and raw materials of the company had to be transported by horse-drawn transport, which went against the basic provision of the concern's policy. Fritz "Henkel" starts planning for the relocation of the plant so that further growth in production can be ensured in the future.

In 1899, the construction of a new complex began, which included: a plant for the production of bleaching soda and the processing of sodium silicate, a boiler room, workshops and office buildings. At the same time, sales of sodium silicate, Henkel's Bleich-Soda bleach, Henkel's Thee tea and Martellin fertilizer exceeded one million marks.

In 1905, the youngest son of Fritz Henkel Sr., Hugo Henkel, joined the company. He immediately starts working as a chemist. Under his responsibility was the direction "Chemical Products and Technologies", and he also laid the foundation for scientific research, and introduced the use of advanced technologies and new materials.

And in June 1907, the world's first powder for washing clothes in automatic washing machines appears, the powder was called Persil. Now housewives have the opportunity to get clean, dazzling white linen after a single boil, without tiring stasis and bleaching.

The new powder has been quite successful with consumers, and as a result, the annual production volume is increased to 4,700 tons. A little later, a new soap factory appeared, where the first packaging machine began to be used. It is worth noting that on the same days the export of Persil washing powder to other countries of the world begins.

In 1909, Persil produced in other countries appears, for this Henkel enters into licensing agreements in France with Société d "Electro Chimie and in England with the Joseph Crosfields & Sons Ltd. And later these companies that manufacture products under the Persil trademark in the territory England and France were bought by the Anglo-Dutch concern Unilever (today the concern has such brands as Lipton, Calve, Brooke Bond and others).

1915 in the history of the company opens a new era of acquisitions and mergers. It was at this time that Henkel purchased the Parker Rust-Proof Company in the United States, founded by Clark W. Parker, which held the license to use the anti-corrosion process using phosphates. The new acquisition allowed the company to strengthen its position in the US market.

A year later, Henkel starts building a more advanced sodium silicate processing plant in Holthausen. After the successful operation of the enterprise, the output decreases. Basically, only wartime Persil powder was produced - an oxygen-containing powder without the addition of soap. And the reason for the decline in production was the shortage of raw materials and government control of the use of fats.

On the first of June, the company's product range is replenished with Ata, which was used to systematically penetrate the sector of degreasers and household cleaners. And in 1924, Ata began to be packaged in bottles made of multilayer cardboard, which was a curiosity at that time.

Two years later, one of the famous advertising images for Persil powder - Weisse Dame (Lady in White) will see the light. The new character could be seen on posters, enameled signs, gable walls, street clocks until the 1960s. In our time, the image of the white lady is experiencing a rebirth.

By 1936, Henkel had manufacturing companies in 12 European countries such as Austria, Belgium, Hungary, Germany, Denmark, Czechoslovakia, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Sweden, and Switzerland. However, after the war, all companies will be nationalized and come under state control.

In 1939, after the outbreak of World War II, the German government issues a decree allowing the production of only standard washing powders. Persil and Fewa powders disappeared from the market. The Henkel assortment, which included more than 200 product items, urgently needed to be radically reduced and changed. In connection with this, the production of two cellulose derivatives began, which were used in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries.

In 1949, two new products appeared in the company's product line - Perwoll washing powder for delicate linen and Lasil washing powder. The new products were Henkel's first synthetic-based powders. Also, one of the subsidiaries, TheraChemie, launched the production of liquid products for bleaching and dyeing hair.

Years pass immeasurably, however, as time inexorably rushes forward. The production of Persil powder with the same composition begins again, but the formula of the powder has been changed - optical brighteners have been added to the composition.

Two years later, Henkel's subsidiary Böhme launches powder and dishwashing detergents under the brand name Pril. A little later, he creates the first foreign branch in the city of Durban (South Africa) - Southern Chemical Manufacturers.

On January 2, 1959, Persil 59 washing powder appears on store shelves, becoming Henkel's first synthetic high-performance washing powder. The effectiveness of the powder did not depend on the hardness of the water (at that time it was a curiosity), it could be used for all types of washing available at that time.

1965 opens again with the introduction of powder, this time with the launch of the new Persil 65, with temperature-controlled foaming, enabling it to be used in activator-type washing machines, which were a huge success on the market at the time.

And again improvement. This time the changes affected the Persil formula, and a little later, for the first time since 1959, Henkel abandoned the combination of the powder name and the year of release to the market, paying more attention to the brand name.

In January 1986, an updated phosphate-free Persil appeared on store shelves in Germany, the Netherlands and Switzerland, and in Austria the "green" powder went on sale even earlier - this happened in October 1985.

In 1990, Henkel officially enters the Russian market by purchasing shares in the Khimvolokno washing powder plant.

In 1991, Henkel launches Persil Color, the first washing powder for colored fabrics. A little later, a branch for the development of bio- and environmental technologies called Cognis was founded.

Three years later, in Düsseldorf-Holthausen, the production of a patented, highly concentrated washing powder under the brand name Megaperls is being established. Henkel products in this form are quickly becoming known in neighboring countries.

In 2003, several brands of the company celebrated anniversaries. The Loctite brand, as well as the Metylan wallpaper paste, celebrated their 50th anniversary. And in 2004, Fa, launched in 1954 as the first luxury soap, celebrated its golden jubilee as a brand.

In 2007, Persil laundry detergent celebrated its centenary. Under the slogan “Pure into the future”, specially designed Persil boxes and new packaging of Persil Gel liquid detergent were launched to mark the anniversary of the time-tested brand. At the end of July, a special program "Ship of the Future Persil" was held in 18 cities in Germany, showing visitors the wonderful world of Persil.

1.2 Industrial production of washing powders

According to Russian experts, the laundry detergent market in Russia over the past few years has grown by an average of 5-7% and amounted to 800,000 tons in 2006. The Russian consumer is gradually switching to more expensive powders. The leading players in the Russian SMS market are Procter&Gambl and Henkel. Despite the fact that Russian manufacturers are inferior to Western ones, they are still in the top five in terms of production - for example, the Vesna company.

In Ukraine, one of the market leaders is a domestic manufacturer - CJSC "Olvia Beta". Experts suggest that last year the Ukrainian SMS market grew by at least 15%.

According to European standards, the consumption of SMS per capita per year ranges from 6-8 kg. In our country, according to various estimates, the average Russian buys no more than 3-4 kg of washing powder per year.

According to the consulting company CREON, the production of CMC in Russia is increasing by about 100,000 tons every year.

The largest Russian SMS producers:

· Stork (St. Petersburg) - OMO, Stork, Stork, BOSplus, Capel.

· Alfatechform (Moscow) - Help, fabric softeners Pooh.

· Spring (Samara) - Spring, Freckles.

· Moscow plant SMS - Alpha, Daxi, Enotik, Raduga.

· Nevskaya cosmetics (St. Petersburg) - Barguzin, Villus, Ordinary powder, Sarma, Sunshine, Eared nannies, Good, Ergo.

Nefis - Cosmetics (Kazan) - BiMAX, BiSoft, BiWhite, Sorti, Feather.

· New Lotus (Moscow) - New Lotus.

Soda (Sterlitamak) - Zifa.

· Stupino chemical plant (MO) - line 5+, Bial.

Transnational corporations producing SMS in Russia:

· Henkel (Germany) (place of production - Perm) - Vernel, Denis, Dixan, Weasel, LOSK, Lotus Pemos, Pemos, Perla, Persil, Perwoll, Sil, Henko, X-tra, Era.

Procter & Gamble (USA) (Novomoskovsky plant, Tula region) - ACE, Ariel, Lenor, Mif, Tide.

Unilever (England - Holland) (St. Petersburg - "Northern Lights") - Calvin Klein, Elizabeth Arden, Cerutti 1881, Chloe.

Foreign SMS producers importing their products to Russia:

· Bagi (Israel) - Airolan, Amilan, Antistatic, Leather, Bagi.

· Cussons (England) - line E, Reflect (produced in Australia), DUO.

Hayat Kimya San. (Turkey) - Test, Bingo.

· Reckitt Benckiser (England-Holland-Germany) - Calgon, Dosia, Lanza, Lip, Vanish, Woolite.

· Werner & Mertz (Germany) - Frosch.

1.3 The composition of the washing powder

The composition of the washing powder includes:

Surfactants (surfactants):

reduce the surface tension of water;

remove dirt from fabric

Complexones (citrates, phosphonates):

bind iron, calcium, magnesium ions

slow down the precipitation of insoluble salts

Sequestrants (sodium tripolyphosphate, zeolites, soda citrates):

soften water

improve the cleaning ability of surfactants

Foam stabilizers (alkyloamines):

reduce foaming

Alkaline additives (soda ash, sodium silicate):

promote the penetration of water into the fibers of the fabric and the washing out of the fabric

Antisorbents (carboxymethylcellulose, sodium salt of cellulose glycolic acid):

prevents the re-deposition of contaminants

Enzymes (amylase, protease, lipase):

destroy stains of protein origin

Optical azurenes (fluorescent substances):

give a white effect

Bleaching agents (sodium perborate, sodium percarborate, potassium persulfate):

bleach stains from tea, coffee, fruit

fragrances

determine the smell of washing powder.

1.4 Biological and ecological role of washing powders

In this section, we want to say how important the composition of the washing powder is. Many housewives have repeatedly noticed that when washing by hand, their hands become dry, a rash appears on the skin, or some kind of allergic reaction. But hardly anyone drew an analogy with nature: after all, if a person has such a reaction to a powder, then what kind of reaction does nature have? In fact, SMS cause irreparable damage not only to humans but also to the environment. What this is, we will write a little later. And in washing powder, phosphates and surfactants cause the greatest harm. What we will now tell.

What is a surfactant? Surfactants (surfactants) - a class of synthetic compounds that dissociate in water with the formation of a surface-active anion (concentrating on the surface, causes a decrease in surface tension). Anionic surfactants are the most aggressive surfactants; the permissible content in detergents is no more than 2-5%. Surfactants can accumulate in organisms in unacceptable concentrations. In humans, they can cause impaired immunity, allergies, damage to the brain, liver, kidneys, and lungs. Phosphates enhance the penetration of surfactants through the skin and contribute to the accumulation of these substances on the fibers of tissues. And now the main question of this section:

Why are surfactants so terrible for the environment and humans? The fact is that surfactants can quickly be destroyed in the environment or, conversely, not be destroyed, but accumulate in organisms in unacceptable concentrations. One of the main negative effects of surfactants in the environment is a decrease in surface tension. For example, in the ocean, a change in surface tension leads to a decrease in the retention of carbon dioxide CO 2 in the body of water. According to some reports, surfactants adsorbed on the surface of water in reservoirs increase the absorption of radar signal waves. In other words, radars and satellites are worse at capturing the signal from underwater objects in water bodies with a certain concentration of surfactants.

Only a few surfactants are considered safe (alkylpolyglucosides), since their degradation products are carbohydrates. However, adsorbed on the surface of the earth particles, the rate of surfactant degradation decreases significantly. Since almost all surfactants used in industry and households have a positive adsorption on particles of earth, sand, clay, under normal conditions they can release (desorb) heavy metal ions held by these particles, and thereby increase the risk of these substances entering the human organism.

Most surfactants have an extremely wide range of negative effects both on the human body and aquatic ecosystems, and on water quality. First of all, they give water persistent specific odors and flavors, and some of them can stabilize unpleasant odors caused by other compounds. Thus, the content of surfactants in water in the amount of 0.4-3.0 mg/dm3 gives it a bitter taste, and 0.2-2.0 mg/dm3 gives it a soapy-kerosene smell.

One of the main physical and chemical properties of surfactants is a high foaming ability, and in relatively low concentrations (of the order of 0.1-0.5 mg/dm3). The appearance of a layer of foam on the surface of the water makes it difficult for the heat and mass exchange of the reservoir with the atmosphere, reduces the flow of oxygen from the air into the water (by 15-20%), slowing down the sedimentation and decomposition of suspensions, the processes of mineralization of organic substances, and thereby worsens the processes of self-purification. Some insoluble surfactants, upon contact with the surface of water, form insoluble films that spread into monolayers with a sufficient spreading area.

A significant part of the anthropogenic load on surface water bodies is wastewater containing synthetic surfactants, which are part of all household and most industrial wastewater.

95-98% of the total amount of detergents used in our country - synthetic detergents produced by the industry, are anionic and nonionic surfactants and detergents based on them, which, as a rule, are characterized by low biological degradability and, due to their chemical nature, have a significant negative effect to water bodies.

Getting into water bodies, surfactants are actively involved in the processes of redistribution and transformation of other pollutants (such as chlorophos, aniline, zinc, iron, butyl acrylate, carcinogens, pesticides, oil products, heavy metals, etc.), activating their toxic effect. Surfactants are associated with 6-30% copper, 3-12% lead and 4-50% mercury in colloidal and dissolved form. An insignificant concentration of surfactants (0.05-0.10 mg/dm3) in water is enough to activate toxic substances.

With a low content of surfactants in water, coagulation (sticking together) and sedimentation of impurities (settling) are often observed due to a decrease or even removal of the electrokinetic potential of particles due to the sorption of oppositely charged organic surfactant ions.

In addition, surfactants somewhat inhibit the breakdown of carcinogens, inhibit the processes of biochemical oxygen consumption, ammonification and nitrification.

During the hydrolysis of surfactants and detergents in the aquatic environment, a complex of phosphates is formed, which leads to eutrophication of water bodies. CMCs supply on average 20 to 40% of total phosphorus to natural waters. Surfactants can also contribute to an increase in the epidemiological danger of water, and also contribute to the chemical pollution of water with substances of high biological activity.

Most surfactants and their decay products are toxic to various groups of hydrobionts: microorganisms (0.8-4.0 mg/dm3), algae (0.5-6.0 mg/dm3), invertebrates (0.01-0.9 mg /dm3) even at low concentrations, especially with chronic exposure. Surfactants can accumulate in the body and cause irreversible pathological changes.

Many researchers note the dependence of the degree and nature of the effect of surfactants on aquatic organisms on the chemical structure of substances. The strongest negative effect is exerted by alkylarylsulfonates, i.e. substances that have a benzene ring in their molecule, and some nonionic substances. Polymer-based surfactants are the least toxic, alkyl sulfates and alkyl sulfonates are somewhat more toxic. Compounds with a straight side chain are more toxic than substances with a highly branched carbon chain.

The toxicity of surfactants in the aquatic environment is largely reduced due to their ability to biodegrade. Surfactants, to one degree or another, are absorbed by the entire flora and fauna of water bodies.

Among the main causes of pollution of water bodies with these substances, the ability of surfactants emitted by enterprises releasing them into the air in significant quantities, to penetrate with atmospheric precipitation into open water bodies and seep into the underground near layers of groundwater, is also often noted. Surfactants also enter groundwater during wastewater treatment at filtration fields and, as a rule, carry other contaminants with them. From groundwater, surfactants pass almost unhindered into surface water sources and through treatment facilities into drinking water. In addition, getting into natural waters, surfactants are sorbed by the particles of mineral and organic origin contained in them, settle to the bottom of water bodies and thereby create foci of secondary pollution.

The great difficulty in water purification from surfactants is that various surfactants in water bodies are most often found as a mixture of individual homologues and isomers, each of which exhibits individual properties when interacting with water and bottom sediments, and the mechanism of their biochemical decomposition is also different. Studies of the properties of surfactant mixtures have shown that in concentrations close to the threshold, these substances have the effect of summing up their harmful effects.

Most of the newly synthesized surfactants entering water bodies and streams with wastewater can accumulate in them for a long time, especially if they consist of a mixture of isomers with different splitting rates. Based on this, the rationing of the presence of a mixture of surfactants in water bodies should be carried out according to the rules recommended for mixtures of chemicals.

The maximum allowable concentration (MPC) of surfactants in the water of reservoirs is 0.5 mg/dm3, non-ionic - 0.1 mg/dm3. The limiting indicator of the harmfulness of surfactants is their foaming ability, which must also be taken into account when reusing treated wastewater in the process water supply of industrial enterprises.

One of the distinguishing features of the impact of surfactants on the environment is that they can enhance the effects of other pollutants. This negative effect is obtained by improving the penetration of pollutants from the soil into water bodies, which contain excessive concentrations of surfactants. Also, surfactants are able to wash off entrenched pollutants from the surface and destroy the balance of pollutants in the environment, inhibiting the process of their natural processing.

Therefore, the need for wastewater treatment from surfactants is obvious. More than 100 thousand tons of surfactants are annually thrown into water bodies by chemical enterprises. A stable foam is formed on the surface of water containing surfactants, which prevents the flow of oxygen from the air into polluted pools and, thereby, impairs self-purification processes and causes great harm to both flora and fauna. In addition, some of them give the water an unpleasant odor and taste.

The second class, no less harmful components that make up the laundry detergent is phosphates. Phosphates are salts and esters of phosphoric acids.

Not all phosphates are actually dangerous for the environment; sodium tripolyphosphate (hereinafter referred to as TPP) stands out among the harmful ones. Its content in powder ranges from 15 to 40 percent. When washing, TPF reduces the hardness of the water and improves the washing effect of the powder.

The main ability of TPF is to masterfully pass even through the most modern treatment facilities. Tripolyphosphate goes straight into rivers and lakes. TPP accumulated in water begins to act as a fertilizer.

The "harvest" of algae in reservoirs is growing by leaps and bounds.

Just one gram of sodium tripolyphosphate stimulates the formation of 5-10 kilograms of algae. In 1987, 1.5 million tons of washing powder were enough for the entire Soviet Union. Scientists believe that now the Russians spend about 1 million tons. From which it follows that annually 300-400 thousand tons of sodium tripolyphosphate enter Russian rivers, lakes and seas. Thanks to this, from one and a half to four billion tons of algae could grow in reservoirs. What saves us from an ecological catastrophe is that light and heat are needed for the growth and development of algae.

And yet, despite the muddy and cold water, the process goes on. Phosphates accumulate, algae grow. The Volga "blooms", especially in the lower reaches, other rivers bloom. For example: in 1965 there were no more than 50 grams of microorganisms in one cubic meter of Black Sea water. Now they are 20 times more.

What's so terrible about the fact that the number of algae will increase every day? In addition to the fact that all bathing can be forgotten, there is another big problem. Algae, decomposing, will release huge amounts of methane, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide. And this means that everything that we will be in the water will die.

Phosphates have a "beneficial" effect not only on algae. Plankton also begins to grow actively. And the more any suspended matter in the water, the less likely it is to use rivers and reservoirs as sources of drinking water.

There are two ways out of this situation: you can build expensive units for the chemical separation of phosphates as part of treatment facilities or remove phosphates from washing powders. In most developed countries, the latter is preferred. In many states, the production of powders using phosphates was first limited, and then completely banned.

Currently, in Germany, Italy, Austria, Norway, Switzerland and the Netherlands, only phosphate-free powders are washed. In Belgium, more than 80% of powders are phosphate-free, in Denmark - 54%, Finland and Sweden - 40%, France - 30%, Great Britain and Spain - 25%, Greece and Portugal - 15%. In Japan, by 1986 there were no phosphates in washing powders at all, because six years earlier, anti-phosphate laws had been passed in 42 out of 48 prefectures. Laws to ban phosphates in detergents are in place in the Republic of Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Thailand and South Africa. In the US, such bans cover more than a third of the states.

Instead of phosphates, biologically inert, environmentally friendly substances - zeolites - are introduced into washing powders. They have been used for about a quarter of a century. Experience has shown their advantages and confirmed their harmlessness.

1.5 Methods for determining the physico-chemical properties of washing powders

Everyone knows that almost all products on store shelves must meet certain standards. Here, in Russia, these are GOST, TU, OST, etc.

Until January 1, 2008, only powders were subject to mandatory certification among laundry detergents. They were to be produced in accordance with GOST 25644-96 “Synthetic powder detergents. General technical requirements". From the first day of 2008, the new GOST R 52488-2005 “Laundry detergents. General technical conditions".

Table 1 from GOST R 52488-2005 “Laundry detergents. General technical conditions":

Table 2 from GOST 25644-96 “Synthetic powder detergents. General technical requirements":

As you can see, the amount of substances is determined according to GOST 22567. Where it is proposed to study the composition due to potentiometric analysis. Electrochemical methods of analysis are based on the measurement of electrical conductivity, potentials, current, and other quantities. A characteristic feature in this case is the electrical nature of the analytical signal. The group of electrochemical methods of analysis includes the methods of potentiometry, conductometry, amperometry, etc.

Potentiometric methods of analysis. The main advantages of the potentiometric method are its high accuracy, high sensitivity, and the ability to carry out titrations in more dilute solutions than visual indicator methods allow.

It should also be noted that this method can be used to determine several substances in one solution without preliminary separation and titration in turbid and colored media.

The field of practical application of potentiometric titration with the use of non-aqueous solvents is significantly expanding. They allow, for example, to find the content of components that are not separately titrated in an aqueous solution, to analyze substances that are insoluble or decomposing in water, etc.

Potentiometric methods of analysis have been known since the end of the last century, when Nernst derived (1889) the well-known equation

E0 is the standard potential of the redox system; R is the universal gas constant, equal to 8.312 J/(mol K); T - absolute temperature, K; F - Faraday's constant, equal to 96485 C/mol; n is the number of electrons taking part in the electrode reaction; a ox , a red are the activities of the oxidized and reduced forms of the redox system, respectively; , - their molar concentrations; Г ox , Г red - activity coefficients.

Behrend reported (1883) the first potentiometric titration. The intensive development of potentiometry in recent years is mainly due to the appearance of various types of ion-selective electrodes, which allow direct determination of the concentration of many ions in solution, and success in the design and mass production of instruments for potentiometric measurements.

Potentiometric methods of analysis are divided into direct potentiometry (ionometry) and potentiometric titration. Methods of direct potentiometry are based on the direct application of the Nernst equation to find the activity or concentration of an electrode reaction participant from the experimentally measured EMF of the circuit or the potential of the corresponding electrode. In potentiometric titration, the equivalence point is determined by a sharp change (jump) in the potential near the equivalence point.

In addition to Potentiometric analysis, there are many others. We will try to briefly outline the essence of the main types of analysis.

1. IR spectrometry. Infrared absorption, reflection or scattering spectra provide extremely rich information about the composition and properties of the sample.

By comparing the IR spectrum of a sample with the spectra of known substances, it is possible to identify an unknown substance, determine the main composition of food products, polymers, detect impurities in atmospheric air and gases, and conduct a fractional or structural-group analysis. The method of correlation analysis using the IR spectrum of a sample can also determine its physicochemical or biological characteristics, for example, seed germination, calorie content of food products, granule size, density, etc. In modern devices, the IR spectrum is determined by scanning the phase shift between the two parts of the separated light beam (Fourier spectrometry). This method gives a significant gain in photometric accuracy and wavelength accuracy.

Fourier spectrometers significantly outperform diffraction instruments in photometric accuracy. In diffraction instruments, the receiver receives light only in a narrow spectral interval, which falls on the output slit of the monochromator. In Fourier spectrometers, the photodetector always receives all the light from the source, and all spectral lines are recorded simultaneously. Consequently, the signal-to-noise ratio increases.

2. Photometric method of analysis (Photometry), a set of methods of molecular absorption spectral analysis based on the selective absorption of electromagnetic radiation in the visible, IR and UV regions by the molecules of the component being determined or its combination with a suitable reagent. The concentration of the component to be determined is determined according to the Bouguer-Lambert-Beer law. The photometric method includes visual photometry, spectrophotometry and photocolorimetry. The latter differs from spectrophotometry in that the absorption of light is measured mainly in the visible region of the spectrum, less often in the near UV and IR regions (i.e., in the wavelength range from ~ 315 to ~ 980 nm), and also in that for extraction of the desired part of the spectrum (10-100 nm wide), not monochromators, but narrow-band filters are used.

The devices for photocolorimetry are photoelectrocolorimeters (PEC), which are characterized by the simplicity of optical and electrical circuits. Most photometers have a set of 10-15 light filters and are two-beam devices in which a beam of light from a radiation source (an incandescent lamp, rarely a mercury lamp) passes through a light filter and a light beam divider (usually a prism), which divides the beam into two beams directed through cuvettes with the investigated solution and with the comparison solution. After the cuvettes, parallel light beams pass through calibrated attenuators (diaphragms), designed to equalize the intensities of light fluxes, and fall on two radiation receivers (photocells) connected in a differential circuit to a null indicator (galvanometer, indicator lamp). The lack of devices is the absence of a monochromator, which leads to a loss of measurement selectivity; The advantages of photometers are the simplicity of design and high sensitivity due to the large luminosity. The measured range of optical density is approximately 0.05-3.0, which allows you to determine many. elements and their connections. in a wide range of contents - from ~ 10-6 to 50% by weight. To further increase the sensitivity and selectivity of determinations, the selection of reagents that form intensely colored complex compounds is essential. with analytes, the choice of the composition of solutions and measurement conditions. The determination errors are about 5%.

3. Luminescent method of analysis. The first description of luminescence as a specific glow of a solution was left in 1577 by the Spanish physician and botanist Nicolas Monardes. In 1852, Stokes established a relationship between fluorescence intensity and concentration. He also suggested using fluorescence as a method of chemical analysis. The first example of the practical determination of Al (III) by the luminescence of its complexes with morine was published by Goppelschroeder in 1867. He also coined the term "luminescent analysis".

Today, the luminescent method of analysis covers a wide range of methods for determining various objects from simple ions and molecules to macromolecular compounds and biological objects. The luminescence of the object itself or its derivatives is detected, it is also possible to use changes in the luminescence of specific agents. For complex samples, luminescent detection is combined with chemical separation (chromatography, electrophoresis) or biological isolation (immunoassay, polymerase chain reaction - PCR).

The process of luminescence includes the transition of molecules to an excited electronic level, vibrational relaxation in the excited state, transition to the ground electronic level either with light emission (proper luminescent radiation) or nonradiatively, and vibrational relaxation in the ground state.

4. Chromatography is a physicochemical method for separating and analyzing mixtures based on the distribution of their components between two phases - stationary and mobile (eluent) flowing through a stationary one. Chromatographic analysis is a criterion for the homogeneity of a substance: if the analyzed substance is not separated by any chromatographic method, then it is considered homogeneous (without impurities).

The fundamental difference between chromatographic methods and other physicochemical methods of analysis is the possibility of separating substances with similar properties. After separation, the components of the analyzed mixture can be identified (set the nature) and quantified (mass, concentration) by any chemical, physical and physico-chemical methods.

Chromatography is widely used in laboratories and industry for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of multicomponent systems, production control, especially in connection with the automation of many processes, as well as for the preparative (including industrial) isolation of individual substances (for example, noble metals), separation rare and trace elements.

In some cases, chromatography is used to identify substances in combination with other physicochemical and physical methods, for example, mass spectrometry, IR, UV spectroscopy, etc.

5. Capillary electrophoresis. Capillary electrophoresis is a technique for analyzing complex mixtures that uses electrokinetic phenomena—the electromigration of ions and other charged particles and electroosmosis—to separate and identify components. These phenomena occur in solutions when they are placed in an electric field, mainly of high voltage. If the solution is in a thin capillary, for example, in a quartz capillary, then the electric field applied along the capillary causes the movement of charged particles and a passive flow of liquid in it, as a result of which the sample is divided into individual components, since the electromigration parameters are specific for each type of charged particles . At the same time, perturbing factors, such as diffusion, sorption, convection, gravitational, etc., are significantly weakened in the capillary, due to which record separation efficiencies are achieved.

Capillary electrophoresis system "Kapel" is designed for quantitative and qualitative determination of the composition of samples of substances in aqueous and aqueous-organic solutions by capillary electrophoresis.

The method of capillary electrophoresis is successfully used to analyze various substances and objects: metal cations, inorganic and organic anions, amino acids, vitamins, drugs, pigments and dyes, proteins, peptides, analysis of pharmaceuticals and food products. And also for quality control of waters and drinks, technological control of production, input control of raw materials, in forensics, medicine, biochemistry, including for the purpose of deciphering the genetic code of living organisms, etc.

We have listed the main types of analysis of the physicochemical properties of substances, all of them have their own advantages and disadvantages. We wanted to analyze washing powders using an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer.

2. X-ray fluorescence analysis

2.1 History of RFA creation

On November 8, 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, a professor at the University of the Bavarian city of Würzburg in southern Germany, quite unexpectedly made a discovery that brought him world fame. On November 27 of the same year, the Swedish inventor and industrialist Alfred Bernhard Nobel signed his will in Paris. These fateful events happened to meet five years later. The first ever Nobel Prize in Physics (1901) was awarded to 56-year-old V. Roentgen for the discovery made five years earlier of the rays that bear his name (the scientist himself called them X-rays). By that time, Roentgen was a well-known scientist, professor at the University of Munich and director of the Physics Institute.

The word "X-ray" has already become a household name, however, the history of the discovery of X-rays, the conditions and methods of work of their discoverer and subsequent discoveries continue to interest many. Historians of science have established that the radiation that occurs in a cathode ray tube has been observed many times before, before the discovery of Roentgen. That is, Roentgen was not the first scientist in the world who investigated the so-called cathode rays. In the second half of the XIX century. cathode tubes were in all major physical laboratories, and it is very strange that before Roentgen no one noticed these rays. Back in 1876 - 1880. Eugen Goldstein studied cathode rays and observed the glow of some salts.

Ten years later, Thomson, while conducting his experiments with cathode rays, also noticed that glass placed more than a meter from the tube phosphorescent. However, he did not pay due attention to this. The physicists of that time knew very well from experience that photographic materials should not be left near a working cathode tube, because they are illuminated. For example, in 1890, an X-ray of laboratory objects was accidentally obtained in America. And 11 years before Roentgen, the director of the Baku Real School, Yevgeny Kamensky, described rays that have a photochemical effect. The secretary of Michon's Baku photographic circle even made experiments in the field of photography, similar to X-rays. Unfortunately, a message about this was published only in 1896 in the journal "Nature and People" N28. 10 years before the publication of the discovery by Roentgen, the Russian professor Ivan Pavlovich Pulyui began to take an interest in discharges in vacuum tubes. He noticed that these rays penetrate opaque objects and illuminate photographic plates. In 1890, he obtained photographs of the skeleton of a frog and a child's hand, and even published them in European magazines. However, he did not study rays further. But the fact remains that the news about X-rays began to appear 10 years before the discovery of Roentgen.

These and some other reports indicate that scientists were on the verge of discovery. The last decisive step was taken by Roentgen in 1895. Professor Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen was already 50 years old when he made his discovery. Roentgen immediately set up a series of experiments and described in detail the properties of the newly discovered rays. That is why it was Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-1923) who went down in history as a discoverer. It was so...

While investigating the electrical discharge in Crookes glass vacuum tubes using a spark inductor with an interrupter, a gas discharge tube and a fluorescent screen, Wilhelm Roentgen noticed a strange glow of crystals lying on a laboratory table. He darkened the room and wrapped the discharge tube in thick, opaque black paper. And then, to his surprise, he continued to observe the pale green glow of a paper screen standing nearby, coated with barium platinum-cyanide. Having carefully analyzed and eliminated the possible causes of errors, Roentgen established that the glow appeared whenever he turned on the Crookes tube, that the tube was the source of radiation, and not any other part of the circuit, and that the screen fluoresced even at a distance of almost two meters from the tube , which far exceeded the capabilities of short-range cathode rays. The shadow cast on the fluorescent screen by the induction coil necessary to create a high-voltage discharge led Roentgen to the idea of ​​investigating the penetrating power of X-rays in various materials. He discovered that X-rays can penetrate almost all objects to various depths, depending on the thickness of the object and the density of the substance. Having come across an unknown phenomenon, the scientist worked all alone for seven weeks in one of the rooms of his laboratory, studying the properties of X-rays. He ordered that food be brought to the university and that a bed be placed there in order to avoid any significant breaks in work. Only at the end of his "loneliness" did he reveal the secret by taking an X-ray photograph of his wife Bertha's hand with a wedding ring, shown along with other photographs in a message on December 28, 1895.

Roentgen's thirty-page report was entitled "On a New Kind of Rays. Preliminary Communication." The last two words look, really, superfluous: in terms of its content, the manuscript was much more weighty than many voluminous scientific tomes. It will soon be published as a separate pamphlet and translated into many European languages. There were no eyewitnesses to the opening. Roentgen himself did not talk about the origins of the experience. Rather reserved by nature, he did not like reporters. And he made perhaps the only exception in his life, giving an interview to one of the Parisian newspapers at the very beginning of 1896.

Happiness, which appeared so unexpectedly, "the" great lot "", as Roentgen later said, which fell to him, he wanted to deserve as a researcher, presenting completely impeccable results, and continued to investigate the properties of rays for about two more years. In 1895-97 he published 3 papers containing an analysis of the properties of the new radiation, and he studied it so thoroughly that it took more than 10 years to add anything to his conclusions. "Subsequently, Roentgen did not have to give up a single word, which was in his first messages," wrote the German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld. And the designs of the first X-ray tubes have largely survived to our time ...

Apparently, T. Edison was the first to use Roentgen's discovery for commercial purposes: in May 1896, he organized an exhibition in New York where those who wished could look at the image of their limbs in X-rays on the screen. But after his assistant died from X-ray burns, Edison stopped all experiments with them. However, despite the obvious danger, work with new rays, expanding and deepening, continued.

The properties of X-ray radiation and the effects of its interaction with matter, on which the methods of X-ray spectral, X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, which are firmly established in laboratory practice, were discovered much later.

This fact emphasizes the global nature of the scientific consequences of the discovery of X-rays. Their properties were revealed gradually, over decades, until now. The history of subsequent discoveries deserves no less attention, since world achievements in the application of X-rays are due to the study of their properties.

Immediately after the discovery of Roentgen, an old dispute arose among physicists, which at that time accompanied the discovery of any kind of radiation. Some believed that these rays were a form of electromagnetic radiation like light, while others believed that they were composed of particles. Roentgen himself could not explain the origin of X-rays, nor could he establish their wave nature. He did not recognize the existence of electrons. But it is their braking in matter, as we now know, that causes electromagnetic waves with a short length (smaller than that of ultraviolet light).

In 1899, the Dutch physicists G. Haga and K. X. Wind passed an X-ray beam through a narrow slit and discovered a weak diffraction effect. From this they concluded about the wave nature of X-rays and estimated the wavelength of this radiation: it was of the order of one angstrom (one hundred millionth of a centimeter). For comparison, we point out that visible light has a wavelength of the order of several thousand angstroms.

In 1904, the English physicist Charles Barkla began to test the hypothesis of the English physicist Stokes that if X-rays are electromagnetic waves, then they must be polarized, and the polarization must depend on the method of their formation in the cathode tube. An experiment by Barkle confirmed that X-rays are oscillations of electromagnetic waves resulting from the deceleration of electrons that hit the anode of an X-ray tube. Polarization was indeed detected, and this was taken as a serious argument in favor of the wave nature of X-rays.

At the same time, however, some facts came to light that testify to the corpuscular nature of X-rays. In 1908, William Henry Bragg investigated the process by which charged particles are produced by X-ray radiation. In particular, he observed the appearance of a flow of electrons in this case, on the basis of which he concluded that X-rays are a flow of particles, since only particles can cause such an effect. These experiments tipped the scales in favor of the corpuscular theory, and this situation continued until 1912, when a brilliant proof of the wave properties of X-rays was unexpectedly presented.

At the University of Munich, where Roentgen continued to work, Max von Laue investigated the phenomena of diffraction. Laue came to the conclusion that the distance between atoms in crystal lattices is of the same order as the supposed wavelength of X-rays. In this case, when the rays pass through the crystal, the phenomenon of diffraction should be observed. After some experiments, photographs of complex diffraction patterns were obtained, which finally convinced the scientific world of the wave properties of X-rays. Subsequently, Max von Laue developed the theory of X-ray interference on crystals, proposing to use crystals as diffraction gratings. In the same 1912, this interference theory received experimental confirmation in the experiments of W. Friedrich and P. Knipping.

In 1913, William Lawrence Bragg (son of W. G. Bragg) and independently the Russian crystallographer Georgy Viktorovich Vul'f derived a formula describing the conditions for interference reflection of X-rays from crystals (the Bragg-Wulf formula). This formula, which relates the wavelength of X-ray radiation to the crystal lattice period of the crystal, allows, on the one hand, using X-rays of a certain wavelength, to investigate the structure of a substance, and on the other hand, using crystals such as table salt, the structure of which is known, you can explore yourself X-rays. Extensive experiments of this kind, carried out by the father and son Braggs, marked the beginning of X-ray diffraction analysis.

The controversy of that time around the quantum or wave nature of X-rays ended with the discovery of Arthur Compton. He discovered an effect (the Compton effect): an incident X-ray beam knocks an electron out of an atom and scatters with a loss of energy, thus confirming that X-rays, like visible light, sometimes act as particles. In 1908, William Henry Bragg, as noted earlier, recorded the occurrence of an electric current under the action of X-rays, but could not detect the loss of radiation energy, since then there were no tools for a thorough study of X-ray spectra. Therefore, it is believed that it was Compton's conclusions that convinced scientists of the manifestation of the corpuscular properties of X-rays. Since that time, quantum-wave dualism has been assigned to X-rays.

Another line of X-ray research originates from the experiments of Charles Barclay. In 1897, it was noticed that under the influence of X-rays falling on a substance - it does not matter, on a solid, liquid or gas - a secondary radiation arises. In 1903, Barkla published his first results on secondary radiation, which he believed was due solely to the scattering of the primary beam. The effect he established, that the scattering intensity increases in proportion to the atomic weight of the substance on which the scattering occurs, gave weight to the electronic theory of matter, which was not yet fully recognized at that time. Further observations made by Charles Barclay showed that in the case of heavier elements, the secondary radiation actually consists of two components: the same X-rays as the primary radiation, and less penetrating - "softer" radiation, which is emitted by the scattering substance. Moreover, the penetrating power of soft radiation increased according to the position occupied by the radiating element in the periodic table. In 1906, Barkla called this radiation characteristic, because the penetrating power depended on the nature of the radiating substance. Henry Moseley later used this result to establish the meaning of an element's atomic number (the number of nuclear charge units). This was an important step towards understanding the structure of the atomic nucleus.

The importance of the discovery of characteristic radiation became clear ten years later, after father and son Braggy showed the possibility of studying X-ray spectra using crystals with a known structure. Using the experimental technique proposed by the Braggs, in 1911 Barkla showed that the characteristic radiation of heavy elements is of two types: short-wavelength, which he called K-radiation, and long-wavelength, which he called L-radiation. These experiments actually became the beginning of X-ray spectroscopy. A valuable contribution to this field was made by the French physicist Maurice de Broglie (the elder brother of Louis de Broglie) and the English physicist Henry Moseley, who was the first to study the X-ray spectra of chemical elements, laying the foundation for X-ray spectral analysis. In practice, these discoveries at that time were used only to obtain X-rays with certain properties, which was necessary for X-ray diffraction analysis.

But the very origin of the X-ray spectra of elements at that time could not be explained theoretically. This situation persisted until the idea of ​​Niels Bohr on the quantum model of the atom, which explained the origin of the characteristic x-ray radiation by quantum transitions of electrons from the outer shells of the atom to the inner ones with the release of x-ray quanta. This was followed by the discovery of Moseley - Moseley's law, which connected the frequency of spectral lines with the serial number of the radiating element in the periodic table of Mendeleev. Moseley showed that the characteristic X-ray radiation is produced by the inner electrons (located near the nucleus) of the atom and that it gives information about the inner electrons of the atom, as ordinary light does about the outer electrons. Pr Henry Moseley was only 26 years old when in 1913 he published the results of his experiments, confirming the assumption of the Dutch researcher Antonius van der Broek that the charge of the atomic nucleus is equal to the serial number of the corresponding element in the periodic system. This work forever inscribed the name of Henry Moseley in the history of science.

Moseley believed that his research method had a great future, since "it is capable of leading to the discovery of still unknown elements, since the position of the characteristic lines of X-ray radiation corresponding to them can be predicted in advance." For practical confirmation of his ideas, Moseley searched for predicted but not discovered elements. He tried to detect, using the X-ray spectra of natural objects, element number 72, whose cell was then empty in the table of elements to the left of tantalum (already discovered by that time). But only 8 years later, the spectroscopist A. Doviye in 1922, using more advanced equipment for X-ray spectral analysis, discovered a new element 72 (hafnium) in the same samples that Moseley had previously studied. Another element discovered in nature with the help of X-ray spectral analysis was rhenium (discovered by the Noddack spouses in 1925). Hafnium and Rhenium were the last discovered stable chemical elements on Earth. The characteristic X-ray spectrum has become the "calling card" of the element.

The work on the development of X-ray analysis technique was continued by the Swedish experimental physicist Carl Manne Georg Sigban. He developed new methods for obtaining detailed X-ray spectra and studied the X-ray spectra of almost all chemical elements. This made it possible to obtain comprehensive data on the structure of the electron shells of atoms. Sigban made a diffraction grating for studying long-wavelength X-ray radiation. Thus, he bridged the gap between hard (short-wavelength) X-ray radiation, which is studied using crystal gratings, and optical ultraviolet radiation, which is studied using a conventional optical diffraction grating. The research of the Swedish scientist showed how the electron shells of the atom are complemented during the transition from lighter elements to heavier ones. His observations made it possible to determine how many electrons are in the corresponding shell of an element.

It so happened that 57 years later the Nobel Prize was awarded to Kai Sigban, the son of Karl Sigban. Involved in physics from an early age, Sigban also took up the study of X-ray healing, in particular the study of electrons knocked out of matter by X-rays. In 1951, as a professor, a young Swedish scientist initiated a new method - electron spectroscopy and used it for chemical analysis. The main merit of this researcher is that he designed a device for studying the energy spectra of electrons knocked out of atoms by X-rays. The X-ray electron spectrometer he developed turned out to be an extremely valuable instrument for modern chemistry. The maxima of the electronic spectra correspond to the binding energies of electrons in the inner shells of atoms, which makes it possible to study the structure of molecules. The method is highly sensitive, which makes it possible to limit the analysis to a surface layer of a substance with a thickness of no more than 50-100 angstroms. This makes it possible to study the processes of corrosion, adsorption, and other surface chemical phenomena. Instruments for electron spectroscopy are an indispensable part of the equipment of a modern research laboratory.

2.2 Operating principle

Here we want to describe what is the meaning of X-ray fluorescence and how this method differs from other types of analysis. P When the atoms of the sample are irradiated with high energy photons - the exciting primary radiation of the X-ray tube - this causes the emission of electrons. The electrons leave the atom. As a result, "holes" - vacancies - are formed in one or more electron orbitals, due to which the atoms pass into an excited state, i.e. become unstable. After millionths of a second, the atoms return to a stable state as vacancies in the inner orbitals are filled with electrons from the outer orbitals. Such a transition is accompanied by the emission of energy in the form of a secondary photon - this phenomenon is called "fluorescence". The energy of the secondary photon is in the energy range of X-rays, which is located in the spectrum of electromagnetic oscillations between ultraviolet and gamma radiation.

The various electron orbitals are designated K, L, M, etc., where K is the orbital closest to the nucleus. Each orbital of an electron in an atom of each element has its own energy level. The energy of the emitted secondary photon is determined by the difference between the energy of the initial and final orbitals between which the transition of the electron took place.

The wavelength of the emitted photon is related to the energy by the formula E \u003d E 1 -E 2 \u003d hc / l, where E 1 and E 2 are the energies of the orbitals between which the electron transition occurred, h is Planck's constant, c is the speed of light, l is the wavelength emitted (secondary) photon. Thus, the fluorescence wavelength is an individual characteristic of each element and is called the characteristic fluorescence. At the same time, the intensity (the number of photons arriving per unit of time) is proportional to the concentration (number of atoms) of the corresponding element. This enables elemental analysis of a substance: determination of the number of atoms of each element that is part of the sample. P The source of exciting (primary) high-energy radiation is an X-ray tube fed by a highly stable high-voltage generator. The mechanism of origin of primary radiation is similar to that of fluorescence, except that the excitation of the anode material of the tube occurs when it is bombarded with high-energy electrons, and not by X-rays, as in fluorescence. The spectral composition of the tube radiation depends on the choice of anode material. For most applications, a rhodium anode is optimal, although other materials such as molybdenum, chromium or gold may be preferred in certain applications.

During the analysis, all elements present in the sample simultaneously emit photons of characteristic fluorescence. To study the concentration of any element in a sample, it is necessary to isolate radiation from the total radiation flux coming from the sample at a wavelength that is characteristic of the element under study. This is achieved by decomposing the total radiation flux coming from the sample into wavelengths and obtaining the spectrum. A spectrum is a curve that describes the dependence of the radiation intensity on the wavelength. To decompose radiation into a spectrum (selection of different wavelengths), crystal analyzers with crystal planes parallel to the surface and having an interplanar distance d are used.

If radiation of wavelength l is incident on a crystal at an angle q, diffraction will occur only if the distances traveled by photons upon reflection from neighboring crystal planes differ by an integer number (n) of wavelengths. As the angle q changes as the crystal rotates with respect to the radiation flux, diffraction will occur sequentially for different wavelengths in accordance with Bragg's law: nl = 2d sinq. The angular position (q) of the analyzer crystal is set by the computer depending on the wavelength to be extracted from the spectrum to analyze the desired element. The selected radiation enters the X-ray detector to measure the intensity. The intensity is the number of photons arriving per unit of time. P Since the separation of the X-ray fluorescence peaks depends on the ratio of the wavelength and the interplanar distance (d), to increase the selectivity and sensitivity of the equipment, the measurement of the spectrum of the test sample in a wide energy range is carried out using several analyzer crystals from various materials. P Single crystals such as germanium, lithium fluoride, indium antimonide are ideal analyzers for the radiation of many elements. Recently, multilayer synthetic coatings have been used to increase sensitivity in the analysis of light elements. Detection of fluorescent radiation is based on the conversion of fluorescence energy into voltage pulses of a certain amplitude. P p lo There are different types of detectors. For relatively long wavelengths, gas-filled proportional detectors are used in the analysis of light elements. Their action is based on the ionization of gas by radiation and the measurement of the number of electrical impulses that have passed through the ionized gas. For short wavelengths (heavy elements), scintillation detectors are used, in which the current of a photocell is measured, which is sensitive to the luminosity of a special substance - a scintillator (NaI / Tl) when X-rays hit it. P The more atoms of a certain type in the sample, the more pulses are recorded by the detector.

The counting electronics records the number of pulses coming from the detectors and the energy levels corresponding to the amplitudes. The modern quality of analyzing technology (amplifiers and pulse analyzers) allows in many cases to obtain a statistical measurement error that satisfies most users in just 2 seconds. A longer counting time is required for light elements that emit a relatively small number of photons with low energies, or for the analysis of elements with concentrations close to the detection limit.

Analysis and processing of measurement results is carried out automatically. For this, methods have been developed for the analysis of many elements for various types of substances. The techniques are implemented in the form of computer programs. During the measurement, the computer controls all spectrometer units in accordance with the specified analysis program. State-of-the-art equipment reliability and an automatic sample feeder allow analysis to be carried out continuously around the clock without operator intervention. At the end of the measurements, the computer calculates the concentrations. The analysis results are transmitted by electronic means of communication automatically to the specified addresses, or accumulated in the measurement database for further processing.

There are two types of X-ray fluorescence spectrometers in which the emission of characteristic radiation occurs with the help of analyzer crystals. Such spectrometers are called "wave dispersion spectrometers". Among them, sequential spectrometers and quantometers are distinguished. Sequential spectrometers ("with a scanning channel"):

On such spectrometers, each characteristic line of X-ray radiation of any number of elements is sequentially separated using a moving analyzer crystal and a high-precision goniometer (a device for measuring angles) coupled to a computer-controlled rotation device.

Advantages of sequential devices:

Universality: definition of any number of elements. Optimum measurement conditions are programmed for each element. Very high sensitivity, low detection levels.

Quantometers (spectrometers with fixed "channels")

With the help of quantometers, parallel measurements are carried out. The characteristic radiation intensities of the elements are measured simultaneously through the use of several tuned fixed "channels" located around the sample. In fact, each of them is a separate spectrometer with a crystal analyzer and a detector tuned to receive a specific wavelength of one element.

Advantages of quantometers: Highest speed of analysis when used for in-line quality control in the industry. Few moving parts, excellent reliability in industrial environments.

2.3 Scope of XRF

Modern XRF laboratories use the latest spectrometers designed for multi-element analysis of substances of various origin and state of aggregation. Basically, this equipment is widely known global manufacturers of X-ray analytical technology. The XRF analysis laboratory complex usually consists of sample preparation devices, an analytical instrument - a spectrometer, and software for managing analysis and processing results. Over the past decade, advances in XRF analysis software have made it possible to solve problems that were not available until recently. This is why software accounts for most of the analytic success.

So, what problems can be solved with the help of XRF?

One of the most complex applications of XRF is the analysis of rocks, ores, and products of their processing. This is due to the peculiarities of these materials: they contain many elements in the XPA sensitivity range (from 0.0001 to 99%). Many elements have a mutual concentration effect in the analysis, and it is necessary to determine them separately with the required accuracy. The simplest objects of XFA (in the methodological sense) are predominantly homogeneous materials of technogenic origin, consisting of a small number of elements. These include metals, glasses, liquids.

The analysis of such materials is usually not difficult in laboratories that traditionally work with more complex objects. The laboratory performs quantitative, semi-quantitative, qualitative analysis of any solid, powder, liquid and plastic inorganic objects. In this case, elements are determined from the serial number 8 (oxygen) - up to 92 (uranium), with their concentration in the range from 1-5 ppm to 100%.

The laboratory has developed methods that are the basis of the analytical process and are designed for the analysis of macro and microelements. The techniques are implemented as software and hardware packages that are used for the quantitative analysis of mineral materials. More than 200 interstate, Russian and industry standard samples of chemical composition were used in the calibrations, thanks to which up to 60 elements are analyzed if their concentration is in the operating range of the XRF method. Together with the latest methods of preparing samples for analysis (induction melting), this provides the versatility of the analytical process for various types of rocks and ores and makes routine high-throughput analysis possible.

Such laboratories offer a comprehensive study of materials, identifying separately several main, most popular types of analytical work:

"Silicate Analysis". Components to be determined: Na 2 O, MgO, Al 2 O 3 , SiO 2 , P 2 O 5 , S, K 2 O, CaO, TiO 2 , MnO, Fe 2 O 3 , PPP. Usually this type of analysis requires the determination of all elements of the macrocomposition. There are two reasons for this: 1) one of the clear signs of the quality of the results is the sum of the components obtained in the analysis. It is considered normal if it is in the range from 98.5 to 100.5%. 2) Modern algorithms for calculating concentrations use all available, preferably the most complete, information about the macrocomponent composition of the sample. Therefore, requiring the XRF laboratory to determine an incomplete set of components of "silicate analysis".

Another highly demanded type of work:

"Microelement Analysis". Example of determined components: Cr, Sc, V, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Pb, Ba, Th, U, Ga, Cl. Here there is much more freedom for the consumer of results, but, as always, a competent formulation of an analytical problem is half of a successful analysis. The set of elements can be changed over a wide range, refusing unnecessary ones and adding the required ones. It should be taken into account here that laboratories equipped with sequential X-ray spectrometers can determine an arbitrary set of elements, but at the same time, expanding the set of determined elements leads to an increase in the duration of the analysis, which affects the cost. And laboratories equipped with quantometers (multichannel spectrometers) and energy dispersive spectrometers determine all the given elements simultaneously without additional time spent on any next element included in the analysis program, but many elements cannot be analyzed due to the design features of such devices. The practice of modern equipment of XRF laboratories (purchase of instruments) shows that research organizations prefer sequential spectrometers because of their versatility, and laboratories of industrial enterprises prefer quantometers because of their performance.

Another type of analysis by XRF method, which is often used:

"Survey semi-quantitative analysis" It is used to study objects of various origins. All elements are determined with an error of 10-20 rel.% at a content of 0.05%-100%. The demand for such an analysis is associated with the need to study the composition of single samples for which there are no ready-made methods of analysis. In practice, such a problem occurs regularly because it makes no sense to organize methodological work lasting several days in order to perform the analysis of one sample in a few minutes and never return to using the created method. The way out of this situation is found in the use of special software and measurement methods, which allow obtaining reliable results of the analysis of any materials without the use of standard samples. Naturally, the quality of the results of such an analysis does not fit into the concept of high accuracy, but it is quite enough to solve many production problems. Examples of such tasks are the sorting of scrap metal, pre-mining marking of the productivity of mine workings, determination of the main components of unknown substances, comparison of the composition of several samples.

The speed of getting results. The modern equipment of the laboratory provides for the analysis of 20 elements in each sample (samples of different composition) with a capacity of up to 100 samples per day. When analyzing up to 5 elements in each sample (subject to the similarity of the sample material), the productivity of the equipment increases to 700 samples per day. Otherwise, the speed of obtaining the final results of the analysis depends on the possibility of timely execution of auxiliary procedures: determination of loss on ignition, preparation of preparations from sample material, etc. In the right laboratories, the best balance is achieved between the time of sample measurements in the spectrometer and the duration of auxiliary procedures. This is the basis for the superior performance of the XRF method.

Some modern XRF laboratories offer new opportunities for an effective analytical service: "On-Line" analysis. - These are highly express analytical tests, when the analysis results are delivered to the customer by modern means of communication within 10-30 minutes from the moment the sample (sample) arrives, which is of particular importance when controlling processing processes, when performing tests of incoming raw materials, selective control of products, measuring concentrations of environmentally hazardous elements.

In this part of the review, we talked about only a few very popular applications of the XRF method. In fact, there are no areas of industry in which this method has not yet found its application. Its versatility is associated with the possibility of creating methods of the required accuracy for determining a wide range of elements in a wide variety of objects.

Some analytical tasks easily solved using modern XRF equipment:

Mass analysis of rocks and ores

Express determination of the composition of ore dressing products

Determination of 10 elements in alloy steels

Analysis of archaeological objects (coins, earrings, rings, slag, bones)

Semi-quantitative express analysis of polished rock samples

Quantitative determination of boron in glassy substances

Determination of Ge(2-5000ppm) in coals and their ashes

Determination of Re(0.6-10ppm) in acidic electrolysis solutions

Determination of Sr (8-300ppm) in biological objects (teeth, bones)

Determination of rare earth elements in model materials for high-level waste disposal

· Definition of gems. metals in electronics board recycling products

Determination of Pb, Cu, Zn, Cl in tree foliage

Determination of P, Cl, Ca, Fe in the products of fast food establishments

Definition of characteristic elements in cosmetic products

Determination of heavy metals in the ashes of waste incineration plants

Determination of the composition of deer antler processing products

Determination of scale composition in high-temperature product pipelines

Direct express determination of the ash content of coals without burning and calcining

Determination of the composition of ash and slag waste from thermal power plants

High-precision analysis of rock macrocomponents

Identification of gems and alloys

Study of the composition of building materials for compliance with GOST

· Chemical mapping of mine workings of feldspar raw materials

Express analysis of precipitation during electrolytic water treatment

Analysis of impurities in metals

Determination of grades of alloys

· Identification of mineral species from micro-weights of matter

Detection of deviations in technological processes by composition of intermediate products

From the foregoing, it follows that X-ray fluorescence analysis, due to its properties, is quite effective not only in modern laboratories, but also for use on an industrial scale.

3.Experiment

3.1 Purpose

As we already wrote, even 10-15 years ago the name of the washing powders used could be easily listed: Astra, Era, Lotus, since their set was not very diverse. Today, the chemical industry offers us a wide range of synthetic detergents that differ in composition, effect, and properties. Advertising is saturated with this kind of information, but it is extremely difficult for an ordinary person to navigate such a rich variety of proposed means. The main indicator of the quality of washing powders is the ability to wash dirt well, which can be measured rigorously. In addition to the washing action, the composition of the washing powder is also examined: the amount of phosphates, surfactants, dust, etc. is determined.

It is clear that we will not study all the same presence of phosphates and active substances, because if they write on washing powders that they comply with GOST, then this is true. We want to find out exactly what substances the powder consists of, i.e. determine the initial set of components needed to create a washing powder.

The proposed research is carried out by means not available to any consumer. The study affects the most popular means in our city, which means it is interesting to many segments of the population. The results of the work will reveal the composition of SMS, which means it serves the purpose of revealing the truth.

Of course, it is necessary to say about the relevance of our study. The incredible variety of washing powders currently sold in stores and wholesale markets throughout Russia, as well as the massive advertising of these products on TV, baffle the average consumer. Many housewives, taking care of the cleanliness of their home, do not even suspect what harm they do to the environment. And we can hope that our work will shed light on the composition of the washing powder. The results that will be obtained in the course of the study are of great practical importance.

So, the purpose of my work: to determine the composition of the washing powder.

3.2 Tasks

1. Study the literature on this topic.

2. Develop a methodology for studying the composition of washing powders.

3. Identify the chemical composition of the washing powder.

What exactly are we going to do? In the household chemicals store, we bought 9 washing powders:

1) Biolan:

Cost: 55.4 rubles/kg;

Suitable for hand and machine wash;

Composition: 5-15% phosphates, 5-15% anionic surfactants, optical brightener, fragrance additive.

Cost: 64.75 rubles/kg;

Corresponds to TU 2381-046-00204300-95;

Ingredients: 5-15% anionic surfactants, 5-15% phosphates, less than 5% non-ionic surfactants, less than 5% oxygen-containing bleaches, polycarboxylates, enzymes, optical brighteners, fragrance.

3) Stork (contains natural active substances):

Cost: 81.0 rub/kg;

Complies with TU 9144-018-00335215-99;

Manufacturer: CJSC "Aist", Russia, St. Petersburg;

Ingredients: 5-15% natural soap, 5-15% oxygen bleach, 5-15% phosphates, less than 5% non-ionic surfactants, sodium silicate, polycarboxylates, stain removers, optical brightener, defoamer, phosphonates, fragrances .

Cost: 65.30 rubles/kg;

Complies with TU 2381-001-04831040-94;

Suitable for machine and hand wash;

Manufacturer: Henkel-South LLC Russia, Saratov region, Engels

Ingredients: less than 5% non-ionic surfactants, less than 5% phosphonates, less than 5% polycarboxylates, 5-15% oxygen bleach, 15-30% anionic surfactants, enzymes, optical brightener, fragrance.

Cost: 45.40 rubles/kg;

Complies with TU 2381-034-04643752-2004;

Suitable for machine and hand wash;

Manufacturer: Henkel-South LLC Russia, Saratov region, Engels;

Ingredients: less than 5% polycarboxylates, 5-15% anionic surfactants, optical brightener, fragrance.

Cost: 95.30 rubles/kg;

Complies with TU 2381-066-00204300-97;

Suitable for machine washing;

Manufacturer: OOO "Procter and Gamble-Novomoskovsk", Russia, Tula region, Novomoskovsk;

Ingredients: 5-15% anionic surfactants, 5-15% oxygen bleach, less than 5% EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) and its salts, less than 5% non-ionic surfactants, less than 5% phosphates, less than 5% phosphonates, less than 5% polycarboxylates, less 5% zeolites, optical brighteners, enzymes, fragrance.

Cost: 48.0 rub/kg;

Complies with TU 2381-042-00204872-99;

Suitable for machine and hand wash;

Manufacturer: JSC "Soda" Russia, Bashkortastan, Sterlitamak;

Ingredients: Surfactants, phosphates, carbonates and silicates, optical brighteners, sodium sulfate, fragrance.

Cost: 49.30 rub/kg;

Complies with GOST R 52488-2005;

Suitable for hand washing;

Manufacturer: JSC Nefis Cosmetics Russia, Kazan;

Ingredients: less than 5% non-ionic surfactants, less than 5% oxygenated brighteners, less than 5% polycarboxylates, 5-15% anionic surfactants, 5-15% phosphates, enzymes, optical brightener.9) Neon (concentrated powder):

Cost: 268 rubles/kg;

Corresponds to GOST 25644-96;

Suitable for machine washing;

Manufacturer: Neon Corporation Petit Ltd. Australia;

Ingredients: anionic and non-ionic surfactants, sodium tripolyphosphate, sodium carbonate, sodium silicate, enzymes, CMC (carboxymethylcellulose), optical brightener, fragrance, dyes, conditioner.

Let's build a powder-price correspondence diagram:

In the laboratory, using an agate mortar, we brought each powder to a homogeneous state, crushed all the granules and analyzed, under the following conditions:

Instrument: EDX-800HS2

Atmosphere: air

Tube: rhodium

Time: 200 sec

3.3 Results

We ran X-ray fluorescence, testing for elements from silicon to uranium. As a result, the following results were obtained:

Table 1. X-ray fluorescence analysis

See Appendix 1 for a complete analysis.

Unfortunately, due to the properties of this analysis, we cannot indicate how much carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are contained in washing powders. Those. excluding C, O and H from the composition, we took the remaining powder as 100%. But now, in the end, we can clearly tell which elements are present in the powder, i.e. The average powder contains:

Let's build diagrams of the content of sulfur, phosphorus, silicon and calcium in various powders:

Diagram 1, percentage of S (sulfur):

Diagram 2, percentage of P (phosphorus):

Diagram 3, percentage of Si(silicon):

Diagram 4, percentage of Ca(calcium):

Thanks to our research, we have determined, for example, the following facts: in washing powders Losk, Pemos and Zifa, the sulfur content is quite high, in concentrated Neon the content of sulfur, phosphorus and silicon is approximately equal, and aluminum occupies 10% in this powder. The advertised children's washing powder Aistenok with natural active ingredients is similar in composition to the usual washing powder Myth. Powders such as Losk, Pemos and Sorti stand out significantly from the total mass: Losk contains 0.44% copper, Pemos generally consists only of sulfur and silicon, and Sorti contains 0.27% iron.

Conclusion

In order to sum up our work in our work, we briefly recall what we have done. We studied washing powders: we described their properties, composition, components, impact on humans and the environment, reminded us what standards SMS must comply with, presented XRF and analyzed the composition of washing powder.

Specifically, our research can help with the choice of washing powder in stores, since the chemical industry offers us a huge selection of SMS, in addition, our work once again emphasizes that phosphates need to be phased out. Why?

Household chemicals are what we use every day. There are people who don't care if what they use affects nature and animals or not. But many do not even know that every day they use means that are unsafe for themselves and for their children, which also negatively affect the environment.

When we are called a third world country, we are indignant. In the depths of their souls, everyone is sure that we are still higher in rank. But the fact remains. Large industrial companies are increasingly exporting to us production and technologies that are prohibited in their homeland. Everything is possible with us. And foreign concerns have also been added to the domestic giants doing their dirty work. Our legislation is much softer and more unpretentious.

Russian housewives, without knowing it, are malicious poisoners of the environment. Most laundry detergents contain phosphates. When washing, they reduce the hardness of the water and improve the washing effect of the powder. But in the West, the same manufacturers of washing powders have long found products with similar properties and without those side effects.

There are manufacturers who offer products, including detergents, containing components that are environmentally friendly for consumers and do not pollute the environment. These are network marketing companies: Amway, NewLife, Edelstar, Gloryon, Argo and some others (of the well-known in Russia). There are products distributed through retail and online stores and representative offices of companies.

Most of these companies produce concentrated detergents based on plant extracts. Concentrates are convenient (shopping is less frequent, bags are easier), profitable (total prices for concentrates are lower). Saving on packaging is beneficial for both the manufacturer (less transportation) and the buyer (lower price), and less garbage is thrown away (good for the environment).

Instead of phosphates, biologically inert, environmentally friendly substances - zeolites - are introduced into washing powders. They have been used for about a quarter of a century. Experience has shown their advantages and confirmed their harmlessness. This is in the entire civilized world. But the same firms that produce phosphate-free powders with zeolite in their countries produce powders with phosphates in Russia under the same trademarks. Thus, Procter & Gamble, back in the USA, produced Ariel with a reduced content of phosphates and without them at all back in the 80s. And at home, where it is prestigious and fashionable to take care of the environment, even the largest manufacturers admit that there is simply no alternative to powders with zeolites. However, for Russia, at the Novomoskovskbytkhim company, Ariel, Tide, Tiks, and Mif are produced with phosphates. And manufacturers of domestic powders do not want to hear about the dangers of phosphates. They either threaten to turn off the light, or delay the salary - and so, in general, the mouth is full of worries. And our Russian factories have been producing phosphate powders all their lives. How are they going to change things. Moreover, the cost of powder with zeolite increases by 20 percent.

No less famous "Henkel" (Germany) at its factories in Tosno (PO "Era") and Engels (JV "Sovhenk") forgets about its own achievements. Phosphate-free powder "Dixan" they have been able to produce since 1983.

It is clear that it is not for the Americans and Germans to worry about the state of our rivers. And the Committee for Nature Protection of the Russian Federation keeps silence, which surprises and frightens. A year ago, scientists in a letter to the committee proposed to legally limit the use of phosphates in detergents as soon as possible. Similar proposals were sent to the State Duma. There are no answers.

Interesting and terrible is the fact that only 3% of water bodies are drinkable! And this is in a country where the main fresh water resources are concentrated.

But while we wait for the introduction of the use of phosphate-free powders, my personal recommendations are: Tide powder is safer today, because. the content of surfactants and phosphates in it is less than 5%, and besides this, they have already begun to add zeolites to the composition. Another tip: with a standard rinse in a washing machine, phosphates remain in the laundry and, accordingly, get on a person and are absorbed into the skin, in addition, it is good if the rinse is in hot water (the higher the temperature, the faster the decomposition of substances occurs), 7-9 rinses are enough in order to remove this dangerous component, so turn on the extra rinse more often and be healthy.

Powder-crushing shops (departments) of pharmaceutical enterprises, in addition to meeting the needs of their enterprise (tablet shop, extractive preparations shop), produce a large number of powders for pharmacies. These are mainly powders of plant origin (powders of leaves, roots, seeds, etc.), which are necessary in everyday recipes for the preparation of powders, pills, candles, etc. Along with this, enterprises produce a significant amount of complex powders according to prescriptions regulated by the Federal Tax Service , VFS or MRTU.

Features of factory production of powders

The production of powders in the factory consists of the same operations as when preparing them in a pharmacy. However, due to the large quantities and volumes of raw materials used and the specific properties (many of them), which are especially pronounced when processing large quantities, the factory production of powders has its own characteristics.

powder forging

When powdering vegetable raw materials and other materials, the essential issue is the correct choice of machine. First of all, it is necessary to take into account the strength of the crushed material, understanding by it its ability to resist destruction under the action of external forces. Obviously, one effort will be required to grind rhubarb rhizomes, and others, incomparably less, to grind sugar. In the first case, runners or a hammer mill are needed for grinding, while in the second, a disintegrator or ball mill will be sufficient.

When powdering plant raw materials, it is necessary to take into account the morphological and anatomical features of the plant and the localization of active substances in it. Obviously, fibrous roots (such as marshmallow) require one type of machine, and non-fibrous roots (rhizome and valerian roots) require another.

In the preparation of powders of plant origin, the moisture content of the crushed materials is essential. It should be borne in mind that vegetable raw materials that have a commercial moisture content provided for by GOST and pharmacopoeial articles are poorly powdered. The raw material must be dried to a residual moisture content of about 6-8% (instead of the usual 12-14%). Drying is carried out in dryers, taking into account the morphological and anatomical features of the raw material and the stability of the active ingredients contained in it.

Finally, the choice of machine depends on the degree of fineness required. When determining it, they proceed from the indication of the GFH.

Powdering of medicinal substances that form poisonous or highly irritating dust(arsenic anhydride, spanish fly, emetic root, etc.). In this case, the least dusty machines are used, most often ball mills. Powdering is carried out in separate rooms. Machines are closed with casings, cases, covers. It is necessary to take personal safety measures (respirators, overalls).

Powdering with cooling. When powdering soap, resins, gums, waxes, hard fats, cooling is necessary to increase the fragility of substances. Grinding is carried out in disintegrators and hammer mills with cold air supply after preliminary cooling in the refrigerator of the products themselves.

Powdering after preliminary degreasing. The presence of fatty oil in objects due to rancidity impairs the preservation of powders (for example, ergot). The oil is removed from the coarse powder by extraction with gasoline in Soxhlet-type apparatuses, after which the final powdering is carried out.

Powdering after preliminary softening. It is used for seeds of chilibukha and salep tubers, the tissues of which require preliminary separation (separation from each other). Chilibukha seeds are exposed to steam and hot water, after which they are cut into thin pieces, dried and then powdered in a ball mill. Salep tubers are macerated with cold water, cut, dried and then powdered.

Powdering with auxiliary substances. Substances that are difficult to powder directly are mixed with some substances that promote grinding. With the addition of solids (sugar), for example, vanilla is powdered (sugar adsorbs vanilla moisture). With the addition of liquid substances (alcohol, ether), camphor, boric acid are powdered.

Mixing. Joint grinding and mixing

The main issue in the preparation of complex powders is the uniformity of their mixing. A convenient way is joint grinding on runners, in disintegrators, dismembrators and ball mills. Along with this, the mixing is carried out in mixers. The most commonly used drum mixers. In its simplest form, it is a cylindrical or multifaceted closed drum driven in rotational motion. In ribbon mixers, mixing is carried out by steel strips (ribbons) bent along a helix, which move the materials to be mixed in a closed trough-shaped vessel from one end of the apparatus to the other. The plant material is mixed in two opposite directions due to the fact that the tapes (two) are bent along the right and left helical lines. In addition, the material lifted by the rotating belts falls back into the mixing mass in a different place from where it was taken from, which greatly contributes to homogenization. For mixing powders, Werner-Pfleider machines are also suitable, having two sigmoid-shaped blades. A substance lifted by one blade up, the other goes down.

Screening

Sifting of one-component powders is carried out on the sieve mechanisms described on p. 76. GPC for most vegetable powders regulates not only the degree of grinding, but also the maximum number of particles that do not pass through sieves with holes of established sizes.

As for complex powders, the homogeneity of the mixture during sieving can be disturbed due to the separation of the components, so the latter are sieved separately and only then mixed.

Dosing and packaging

In the factory, the operations of dosing and packaging of powders are a combined production process and are carried out on the same production line. Filling machines for powders work according to the volumetric and weight method. The simplest machine, the operation of which is based on a volumetric method, uses an auger for dosing, the speed of which regulates the volume of powder poured out. There are no valves in piston dosing machines for powders; the cylinder itself with the piston rotates.

With the volumetric method of packaging, great accuracy cannot be achieved, since with the slightest shaking of the dispenser, the mass easily changes (due to the denser packing of the powder particles).

The weight method is used in automatic scales (Fig. 124). The main part of the scales is a rocker /, on one side of which a cup is suspended 2 for weights, and on the other - a dosing cup 3. Before starting the scales for work on a cup 2 put the weights and finally set the mass of the powder with the regulator 8 with mobile weights 15 and22, and also fill the hopper with powder 4. After that, the balance is actuated by the handle 17, which through the levers 6 and 7 opens the damper 10, and the powder through channel 5 begins to fill the scales 3. Once the desired weight has been reached, the arrow 18 touches the zero division of the scale - screw 21 through leverage 6 and 7 and damper 20 closes the damper 10. Simultaneously with levers 12 and 13 folds down the bottom of the cup 3 and a dose of powder is poured through the funnel 14. Under the action of the counterweight 2 / from the bottom of the cup 3 closes, the scales are out of balance, with screw 19 the flap opens again through the levers 10 and the process is repeated. Regulator and rocker oscillate on a prism 16. The speed of powder outflow from the hopper is controlled by a damper 9. The balance can be temporarily stopped with lever 11 . To stop the operation of automatic scales, use the handle. 17.

Private technology and nomenclature of powders

From complex powders the industry produces:

Complex licorice powder(Purvis Glycyrrhizae compositus). Composition (parts) according to GPC: licorice root and senna leaves - 20 each, fennel fruits and sulfur - 10 each, sugar - 40. Powders of these substances are mixed in a mixer, sieved through a sieve with holes with a diameter of 0.2 mm and mixed again.

Carlsbad salt artificial(Sal. carolinum factitium). Prepare by mixing 44 parts of dried sodium sulfate, 36 parts of sodium bicarbonate, 18 parts of sodium chloride and 2 parts of potassium sulfate.

Alkaline salt rinse(Gargarisma alcalina). Consists of 5 parts sodium chloride, 10 parts sodium bicarbonate and 15 parts sodium tetraborate.

Amikasol powder(Aspersio Amycazoli) 2 and 5%. The recipe is included in the GFH for the first time. Filler - talc (98 and 95%) - Antifungal agent; list B.

Galmanin(Galmaninum). The composition of this disinfectant and drying powder includes: salicylic acid 2 parts, zinc oxide 10 parts, starch and talc 44 parts each.

In the daily life of a modern person, there are things that simply cannot be done without. For example, is it possible to imagine our life today without washing machines, and therefore without washing powders? Detergent, of course, is not the first vital necessity, but it is far from the last. It is no coincidence that washing powder is invisibly present in every home and is used almost as often as toothpaste or shampoo. Meanwhile, back in the 60s, we washed mostly with soap, but today the use of powder in Russia is growing from year to year.

Will there be a "big wash" in Russia?

Indeed, the Russian laundry detergent market has shown steady growth in recent years. According to Masterforex-V Academy experts, this is due to a number of changes that are taking place in the life of Russians:

- mass use of powder. Today, the proportion of households using laundry detergent is approaching 100 percent. That is, absolutely any Russian can afford this tool;

- growth in the income level of the population. Thanks to this circumstance, we gradually get used to not saving on laundry detergents;

- changes in the culture of consumption of household chemicals. Russians have become accustomed not only to washing powders, but also bleaches, stain removers, conditioners, etc. We already need not only a good washing powder, but also one that preserves the color and shape of our favorite things.

Already these changes indicate that the Russian market for laundry detergents has a serious potential for growth. It can be said that it is:
- promising market. Despite a significant increase in sales of detergents in recent years, the level of their consumption in Russia is still 2-3 times lower than in European countries (in Europe, on average, 12-16 kg per person per year). In addition, we still sell little washing gels, concentrated powders, special tablets, products with environmentally friendly components, which are so popular today in the West. In this sense, the Russian market has yet to grow and grow, which means that a stable rise is ensured for it in the coming years;

- large capacity of the Russian market. Here it is enough to recall that our country is in 9th place in the world in terms of population (more than 143 million people), and our powder consumption is less than 6 kg per capita. It is clear that the demand for household chemicals will increase, and the market will grow accordingly;

- stable sales. Since people will not stop washing even during a crisis, there is little threat to the sales of these products in Russia, and, consequently, their production remains a fairly profitable business.

So, the domestic market of washing powders is not yet properly saturated, and its players have every opportunity for further growth. In this case, what is happening today in the Russian market of washing powders? How strong is the competition in this market, and what determines the market share of its main players? And finally, how the marketing strategy and advertising policy help them to keep the won positions, the analysts of the "Market Leader" magazine dealt with these and other questions.

Who "washes" Russia?

As you know, in order to achieve real success, you must certainly be on the pedestal, all other places mean that it will be extremely difficult to recoup investments, innovations and advertising costs. Who is included in the first echelon of players in the Russian laundry detergent market?

American company Procter & Gamble(brands - Tide, Ariel, "Mif", Dreft, Tix) occupies a leading position in our market. Its share is about 44 percent.

Ask, what predetermines such a success of the company in Russia? It can be explained by the fact that Procter & Gamble:
- owns the largest range of consumer goods, among its 22 brands with a turnover of more than 1 billion dollars, there are well-known brands Tide and Ariel;
- one of the first to enter the Russian market. Last year, the company celebrated the 20th anniversary of its work in our country;
- has its own production in Russia, back in the 90s it bought out the largest domestic enterprise for the production of detergents - Novomoskovskbytkhim. After a recent modernization, this production should increase its capacity to 700 thousand tons of powder per year;
- the success in Russia of such brands of laundry detergents as Ariel and Tide, together with "Myth" they are in the Top 10 most purchased powders from us;
- the first of the international corporations to launch its own online store in Russia;
- is the largest advertiser in the Russian advertising market. As you know, the appearance of the expression "soap opera" is associated with Procter & Gamble. As far back as 1933, her laundry detergent sponsored the radio series Ma Perkins, and the series' wild success led to the company sponsoring other soap operas. By the way, it was this company that topped the rating of the 100 largest advertisers in the UK (in 2010 it spent $326.5 million on advertising);
- has its own charity program "Live, Learn and Prosper", within the framework of this program, the company, for example, provides vaccinations in Africa and delivers clean drinking water, provides support to countries in the disaster zone, etc. By the way, P&G was the only company invited to present its charity program to the administration of President Barack Obama.

German concern Henkel(brands - Persil, Laska, Losk, Deni, Pemos) holds a share of the Russian laundry detergent market of 26 percent.
Among its advantages over its competitors are the following:
- has its own production facilities on the territory of our country - the enterprises "Era" and "Pemos";
- its products cover all price categories of powder - from premium to lower (in premium - Persil, medium - Losk, lower - "Pemos");
- strong international brands. In the top ten most expensive brands of washing powder in Russia, three brands belong to this company;
- creates local brands. For example, in the 1990s, the concern supplied the old German brand Perwoll to the Russian market, later the Laska brand was developed on its basis;
- almost 30 percent of Russians prefer to buy Persil powder, which is produced by this very company;
- great attention to innovation, constant introduction of new products to the market.

JSC "Nefis Cosmetics"(brands - BiMAX, AOS, "Biolan", Sorti) - the largest domestic manufacturer. The company occupies almost 10 percent of the laundry detergent market.
Nefis successfully took advantage of the crisis by doubling its share in 2008-2009. In the end, those who are lucky are really lucky. Today it is the only Russian company producing products in the high price segment, we are talking about Bi-Max powder. In contrast, its Sorti powder is one of the leaders in the lower segment of this market.

Reckitt Benckiser Multinational Corporation(brands - Dosia, Lanza) with a 5 percent market share in Russia. The company has its own production in Klin, and the popularity of its Dosia washing powder is associated with its slogan, which has become widely known here - "If you can't see the difference, why pay more?". By the way, it will be said that this brand is presented only in Poland, the Czech Republic, Russia and other CIS countries. By the way, Reckitt Benckiser pays great attention to the advertising opportunities of the Internet and social networks. In the US, it has already shifted 20 percent of its budget from television advertising to the Internet.

JSC "Soda"(a series of washing powders "Zifa") has about 5 percent of the market share. This year the enterprise has started production of powders under the new brand "Ekol". This remedy, as the name implies, is declared as an ecological one, created on the basis of soda.

CJSC "Aist"(brands - Cashmere, Aist, Yat, Kapel, Lumix) has about 4 percent of the market share. Specializes in products of medium and low price category.

JSC "Nevskaya Cosmetics"(brand - "Eared Nyan", "Max", "Index", "Sarma", "Vorsinka", "Lotos", "Normal", etc.) occupies about 4 percent of the Russian market. The advantages of the company include:
- own niche in the market - children's washing powder in the middle price segment;
- a strong brand - "Eared Nyan", specializing in children's goods;
- produces some of the safest laundry detergents. It is alleged that the proportion of dust in the powder of its production is no more than 0.7 percent (according to GOST, this figure should not exceed 5%);
- optimal price-quality ratio.

If we talk about the most popular brands in sales, then the Top 10 includes in alphabetical order: Ariel (Р&G), Deni (Henkel), Dosia (Reckitt Benckiser), Persil (Henkel), Sorti (Nafis Cosmetics), Tide ( P&G), Gloss (Henkel), Myth (P&G), Pemos (Henkel).

Thus, we can conclude that there is a high degree of presence of foreign players in the Russian market of washing powders. If in 2000 domestic enterprises owned more than two thirds of the market for synthetic detergents, and foreign - a third, now this ratio has changed in a mirror way. We can say that the Russian market is monopolized by two leading foreign companies - Procter & Gamble and Henkel. Against this background, the results of individual domestic companies - Nefis Cosmetics, Aist, Nevskaya Cosmetics - cannot but impress. But without serious advertising support, it will not be easy for them to gain a foothold in this market.

Beware: washing powder... or bolder?

If some 20 years ago, the set of washing powders in our country was not very diverse, and their names could be easily listed ("News", "Astra", "Era", "Lotus"), today manufacturers are trying to respond quickly for all consumer needs. In this case, it would be worthwhile to figure out what are the main problems of this market and the main trends of recent years? Companies operating in the laundry detergent market operate in several directions at once:

- production of new types of detergents. Of course, powder detergents continue to dominate our market. Till. The fact is that since 2010 the share of dry powders in the Russian market has been gradually falling, for example, washing gels are becoming more widespread. By the way, in some Western countries they make up more than half of the market. As for the Russian prospects for these funds, the experts could not agree and differed in their forecasts. Some believe that gels will never take root with us, they say, we have a completely different approach to washing. Due to our habit of dosing the powder "by eye", the liquid remedy will quickly run out, causing only disappointment. Others note that the gel has a significant advantage over the powder - it does not produce dust, which means it does not cause allergies, and it also completely dissolves in water. Interest is also growing in concentrated washing powders, which Europe has already been able to appreciate, because they are 30 percent more economical than traditional ones. And then there are pills, which are still an exotic product for us;

- expansion of the product range. What kind of laundry detergents you can see today on the shelves of our stores - for white, colored, delicate laundry, "two in one", for sensitive skin, baby clothes, products with bioadditives, etc. But manufacturers continue and continue to expand their portfolios;

- creation of new market segments. Experts consider the development of a niche of hypoallergenic laundry detergents, powders for people with sensitive skin, for washing in cold water, which is important for expensive items, as well as for children's underwear, to be a current trend. Or another example. Nefis, wanting to attract the attention of a young audience, has released Sorti Sport powder - for those who go in for sports. And there are more than enough such examples today;

- quality powders. Each of us wants to have a washing powder that can not only remove stains, but also retain colors, leave fabrics soft and smelling good. Unfortunately, today it is not easy to find such a powder with us. The fame of a second-class product has firmly entrenched behind domestic laundry detergents (they say, what kind of laundry is it when there is a hole on the hole). As for foreign brands, for example, the same Tide, at first, really washed well without boiling, and over time, its quality began to decline;

- environmentally friendly products. Today we are much more concerned about our health and safety. Meanwhile, science considers washing powders as the most dangerous (!) chemicals for human health and the environment among all the substances that we come into contact with in everyday life. Claims from scientists and physicians, first of all, to surfactants and phosphate additives, which are part of the washing powder. With prolonged contact, they can cause allergies, impaired immunity, and even damage to the lungs, liver and kidneys. According to biologist Vladimir Melnikov, in order to get rid of phosphates in washed linen, you need to rinse it at least ten times in running water, while our washing machines are programmed for 3-4 cycles of rinsing clothes. However, try to find a powder in Russia without these same phosphates. And this despite the fact that already in a number of countries of the world the production and use of phosphate powders is prohibited. Austria, Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and other countries have switched to the use of phosphate-free SMS. An interesting story is obtained with these phosphates. The same Procter & Gamble and Henkel have been producing powders without phosphates in their homeland for many years, and in our country they are produced under the same names with phosphates.

And yet, despite the importance of new technologies and the production of high-quality goods, in order to survive in the laundry detergent market, you need multimillion-dollar advertising budgets, competent marketing policies and creative advertising.

PR ... or how not to "wash dirty linen in public"

As you can see from the presented table, the TOP-5 washing powders, namely Ariel, AOS, Tide, Deni, Tix are represented mainly by foreign manufacturers Procter & Gamble and Henkel.

Outsiders in terms of popularity among users in the Russian segment of the Internet, namely, in terms of the Yandex search engine, are the following washing powders:
- Villus - 81 requests
- Max - 65
- Cashmere - 50
- Yat - 43
- Lumix - 0

The number of requests and, accordingly, popularity with foreign counterparts, Russian ones are incomparably small.

Why is that? Yes, because the PR departments of foreign companies have long understood the importance of advertising and promotion. After all, brand promotion using Internet advertising methods has long proved its effectiveness in the global global market both abroad and in Russia. And given the high activity of Russian Internet users and advanced indicators in terms of the amount of time, it becomes extremely useful to use this opportunity.

So that we are not talking here about boring and completely disgusting advertising, according to sociologists, we make up to 90 percent of purchases, sometimes without even realizing it, under the influence of ... advertising. Here is a business and does not spare money on it. For example, in 2010, the volume of advertisements for household chemicals in monetary terms increased by 32 percent compared to the previous year. This increase in the advertising budgets of the main players in the laundry detergent market is just logical and understandable. The question is different, namely, how effectively are these huge funds being used? Alas, in advertising we most often encounter outdated stereotypes and utterly hackneyed images. Admittedly, advertising such a prosaic thing as laundry detergent is extremely difficult. It is not easy due to the obvious uniformity of household chemical products. After all, at first glance, all powders seem the same, no matter how much they cost and no matter what manufacturer they belong to. By and large, almost all of them contain the same components - surface-active substances (surfactants), phosphates, bleaches, enzymes (enzymes), flavors, dyes and some other additives. The quality of the powder depends only on how competently these components were selected and mixed, as well as on their chemical purity.

It is extremely difficult to invent something fundamentally new in the chemical composition of the powder, but even if its composition changes, the main players in this market do it almost simultaneously in order not to let the opponent get around them at the turn. It is not easy to advertise detergents because of the low emotionality of this product, if you like, its "boringness". Usually, advertisers try to get around these problems in several ways and with several images.

Let's call them:
- intrusive advertising. Laundry detergents today are perhaps one of the most aggressively advertised products. Who only from the TV screens does not tell us about the secrets of the snow-whiteness of their previously dirty linen - movie and pop stars and stars, housewives and mothers of many children, pensioners and doctors, etc. Everyone calls us: buy, buy, buy! It is believed that the appeals of an ordinary consumer - a neighbor (advice of Aunt Asya) are especially effective, this increases the credibility of the brand, gives the advertisement a shade of non-engagement, as it were. That's it - as it were. How can one not recall the "soapy" classics - the Tide advertisement "Are you still boiling? Then we are going to you." The daily hammering of this product led first to irritation, then to rejection, a desire to immediately switch to another channel, and also to the appearance of a mass of parodies - "You don't have democracy yet? Then we're flying to you", "Are you on vacation? Then we're going to you" or "Do you have currency? Then we'll go to you", etc., etc. It is unlikely that the authors of this slogan wanted such a result;

- clarity of the result of using the powder. As there is a slogan for BiMax: "Concentrated on the result." To do this, a certain video sequence is usually built in the commercials - "before" and "after" washing. At the same time, consumer properties of this or that powder are certainly exaggerated. In reality, the results almost always turn out to be different from those stated in the commercial;

- stain removal. As a rule, spots are visualized in videos on this topic and the mystical process of their disappearance from clothes begins. In general, “Losk is. No stains”, “Mom has no problems - mom has Denis or, in worst case, Ariel. An impeccable look of clothes. "Well, the fact that "Denis", which really washes dirty stains well, but can stretch the fabric, in advertising, no gu-gu. Or take the BiMAX powder, which does not care much about things, and with many "It doesn't cope with stains. It turns out like in that joke. Have you heard? Lux-granules have been added to the new washing powder! Now, in place of the old stains, there will be new holes in shape repeating the removed stains. And most importantly, new stains do not form in these places!

- sterile whiteness. Here is a whole series of videos in which the heroine, burying her face in a washed towel (duvet cover, sheet, shirt, etc.), greedily sucks in air with her nose and rolls her eyes in bliss! Like, snow-white purity and freshness. But at what cost and by what means this frosty freshness is achieved, we will not hear in the video. Just buy, for example, the same Tide. "Purity is pure Tide." We can also recall the rather unaesthetic commercial of the BiMAX powder “Check it to believe it!”, in which the hero in a restaurant knocks wine over himself. The voice-over reassures, "the one who uses BiMAX will not worry about some stain", and our hero soils his shirt with everything he can reach on the table. Advertising spells about the extraordinary properties of this powder will be left to the conscience of the manufacturers;

- saving money. It makes sense to return to Dosia powder again with its slogan "If you can't see the difference, why pay more?" A few years ago in Russia, this advertisement was recognized as unreliable, it was proved that it has no advantages over powders of a higher price category. Well, a cheap powder cannot be effective, and therefore economical.

In general, as you can see from this short review, traditional advertising for laundry products looks, as a rule, formulaic, trite and untruthful. Advertising washing powders is really not an easy task, here a share of imagination, ingenuity and humor will not be superfluous at all. It's foolish to approach her with deadly seriousness. And in advertising it is necessary to talk not about stains, but about care - about your family, its health and happiness. And also about the fact that laundry detergents are really necessary things, every day and in every family. Everyone loves cleanliness and order in the house. How is it in the film "An Ordinary Miracle" - "Who saves on cleanliness is either a thief or a pig!" That's when it will be possible to say about the work of manufacturers and advertisers - purely worked out. And further. After all, cleanliness is not only a guarantee of health, but also a guarantee of income for manufacturers of washing powder.