The reign of the five princeps of the Antonine dynasty (Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius) is considered a period of stability for the Empire, a time of stable central power. Most sources speak of a balance in the social and political spheres, which had a positive effect on the state. The era of the so-called "golden age", which came after civil wars and terror, seems to be the time when the transformation of the principate system takes place, its transition to a higher level.
The reason why this particular time is considered by many historians as the golden age of the Roman Empire is as follows. The old republican principle of state power in ancient Rome was gradually becoming obsolete. This principle of government arose at a very early stage in the development of Roman society after the plebeians (merchants, artisans, and generally the lower classes of society) managed to achieve equal political rights for themselves in a tough political struggle with the patricians (the old aristocratic elite). This contributed to the development of democratic traditions in Rome, but at the same time limited the possibility of enslaving the citizens of the city. If earlier any plebeian who was indebted and had no chance of repaying the debt could fall into slavery, then after gaining equal rights with the patricians, this was no longer possible. The debtor could lose all property, but retained freedom. However, the low level of development of the productive forces of that time required a constant influx of slave power. And if it was impossible to get slaves inside the city, then they should have been looked for outside the city. For this reason, Rome embarked on the path of constant aggression against neighboring peoples. Constant wars to acquire slave power from among the conquered neighboring peoples contributed to the development of military affairs and the prosperity of the economy. But they also undermined the democratic foundations of the state system of the city. The political influence of the army and successful commanders was constantly growing. The soldiers got used to depend on their commander, and not on the distant and alien Roman Senate. In this situation, sooner or later, the moment was bound to come when the most successful commanders would try to seize the supreme power in their hands. And such ambitious people appeared: these are Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Crassus and finally Caesar. But the seizure of power and the establishment of a monarchical system of government in a state with long democratic traditions is necessarily accompanied by difficult civil wars: the old system does not just go away. In order for the idea of ​​monarchy to be firmly established in the state, it must first be firmly established in the minds of the majority of the citizens of the state. And this takes a lot of time. As long as the monarchical idea has not taken hold of the masses, there will always be attempts to overthrow it. And that means that there will be constant conspiracies, military and political upheavals. But when it finally becomes dominant, then these upheavals end: the new finally defeated the old. And purely historically, it turned out that the monarchical idea became dominant in Roman society precisely by the beginning of the reign of the Antonines. Therefore, in their reign, conspiracies, upheavals and civil wars, which constantly tormented Rome in previous times, ceased. On the other hand, by this time, the empire no longer had strong neighbors capable of threatening the existence of Rome. Therefore, the external threat also disappeared. It is not surprising that it was this time that was perceived by contemporaries and their immediate descendants as the "golden time" of the empire.

"Golden Age" of the Roman Empire (96-192 AD)

At this time, the ideological attitudes that determined the relationship between power and society changed radically. At the turn of the I-II centuries. among the Greco-Roman intellectual elite, there is a reassessment of values ​​in relation to the principate as a system of sole power: the philosophical opposition with its criticism of autocracy and related abuses has been replaced by a theoretical justification of the monarchy as the best form of government, headed by a virtuous princeps, who is guided in his activities interests of citizens and considerations of higher justice. This theory was embodied in four speeches "On the royal power" of Dion Chrysostomos and in the "Panegy" of Pliny the Younger (100).

Trajan largely corresponded to the image of the ideal princeps created by Greek and Roman intellectuals. He was an outstanding statesman: a sensible politician, a capable commander and an experienced administrator, a modest, simple and accessible person, alien to lust for power, money-grubbing and passion for pleasure. In his policy, Trajan focused mainly on the senate, the army and the provincial nobility. The emperor had a constructive dialogue with the Senate, placing its legislative activity under the control of his administration.

As a sign of their gratitude, the Senate awarded Trajan the title of "best emperor" (princeps optimus). In 100, Pliny the Younger, on behalf of the senators, addressed the emperor with the following words: “We love you as much as you deserve it, and we love you not out of love for you, but out of love for ourselves.”

The army was an obedient and effective instrument of the policy of the Irinceps. Trajan paid considerable attention to the life of the provinces, strictly controlling the activities of the governors. Many noble provincials under him were included in the Senate 1 . This meant that the provinces finally ceased to be the objects of the robbery of the imperial authorities and became organic components of the Roman state. Trajan was in regular correspondence with the governors of the provinces, trying to keep the entire Roman Empire in sight.

Against the background of the economic recovery of the provinces, the decline of the Italian economy was all the more noticeable. To provide effective assistance to the impoverished rural population, the first Antonins created the so-called alimentary system: the state allocated a monetary fund, from which loans were issued at 5% per annum for investment in the economy. The interest received was used to pay benefits to orphans and children of the poor (in Rome alone, 5,000 children of poor citizens received benefits). In addition, the state paid for their primary school education. The alimentary system contributed not only to the revival of Italian agriculture, but also to the preparation of human reserves for the Roman army.

The stabilization of the internal political and economic situation of the empire created the prerequisites for an active foreign policy. Trajan brought the number of legions to 30. During the military campaigns of 101-103 and 105-107. a huge Roman army led by the emperor himself conquered the strong Dacian kingdom of Decebalus. Defeated on the battlefield, Decebalus committed suicide, the Romans captured the capital of the Dacians, the city of Sarmizegetusa, Dacia became a Roman province (107). The conquest of Dacia with its fertile soils, gold mines and natural salt reserves was Trajan's most important foreign policy action, both from an economic and military-strategic point of view. Huge booty allowed the emperor to make generous payments and distributions to the Praetorians, the army and the plebs, to arrange grandiose spectacles in Rome that lasted 123 days, persecution and gladiator fights, and also to launch active construction: the magnificent baths of Trajan, a new plumbing system and a luxurious forum of Trajan with 40 -meter column topped with a statue of the emperor.

In 106, the Romans conquered the Nabataean kingdom and turned it into the province of Arabia. Then Trajan began to prepare for a war with Parthia: the emperor wanted to oust the Parthians from Mesopotamia and subjugate Armenia. Having set out on a campaign in the autumn of 113, Trajan occupied Armenia the following year and turned it into a province. In 115-116 years. he defeated the troops of the Parthian king Vologese III (105-147), captured his capital Ctesiphon and conquered all of Mesopotamia up to the coast of the Persian Gulf. Trajan placed his protege on the Parthian throne Partama spatha (116). However, stretched communications, discontent of the local population with the Roman occupation, and serious unrest in the eastern provinces forced Trajan to withdraw the legions beyond the Euphrates. Huge material costs were in vain: the newly conquered lands in the East could not be retained. On the way to Italy, in Cilicia, the 64-year-old Trajan fell ill and died in August 117. Like his predecessor, he was deified. Despite the failure eastern expedition 114-117 BC, the Romans kept a good memory of Trajan: since then it has become a custom in Rome to wish the new emperor "to be happier than Augustus and better than Trajan."

The childless Trajan was succeeded by his cousin and adopted son, 41-year-old Publius Aelius Hadrian (117-138). He became a worthy successor to the "best princeps": an intelligent and educated person, a brilliant administrator and an experienced military man, an energetic and far-sighted politician, the new emperor was at the height of understanding the tasks that confronted him. In particular, realizing the futility of the aggressive policy in the East and the complete depletion of state resources, Adrian concluded a peace treaty with Parthia on the terms of restoration status quo(the border was fixed along the Euphrates) and began the construction of a powerful defensive line on the eastern borders of the empire. Thanks to the measures taken, peace with Parthia was maintained for 44 years. As the biographer of the emperor wrote, “under Hadrian there were no major military campaigns at all; wars also ended almost silently. He was very loved by the soldiers for his exceptional care of the army and for the fact that he was very generous towards them. With the Parthians, he was always on friendly terms, because he removed from them the king whom Trajan had given them. He allowed the Armenians to have their own king, while under Trajan they had a Roman legate. From the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, he did not demand the tribute that Trajan imposed on them. In Albanians and Iberians, he had true friends, since he generously endowed their kings, although they refused to come to visit him.

Having completed business in the East, Hadrian took up a similar arrangement of the empire's borders in Europe and Africa. Grandiose work began everywhere on the construction of border fortifications, called limes. The Roman limes was a system of small fortresses, forts and field camps, between which a ditch was dug and a rampart was poured, fortified with a wall or palisade (there was a road behind them for the operational transfer of troops). The large-scale construction of defensive fortifications on the border meant the final rejection of the empire's policy of territorial expansion and the transition to strategic defense at all frontiers. Adrian took care of maintaining the army in a state of constant combat readiness. He authorized the replenishment of the legions at the expense of provincials who did not have Roman or Latin citizenship, since the number of volunteers from among Roman citizens was constantly decreasing. Thus, the basis for the barbarization of the Roman military machine was created, which eventually led to serious socio-political consequences.

Hadrian carried out a number of measures aimed at strengthening the imperial system of government. He reorganized the council of the princeps, which included senior officials, heads of departments and prominent lawyers. The number of departments themselves, which received state status, increased: instead of freedmen, they were now headed by horsemen. From now on, all managers had each their own rank, set by the state, and were on a salary (that is, they became officials). The administration of the provinces was organized in a similar way. The emperor exercised constant control over the activities of the governors. From time to time curators visited the provinces with inspections ( curators) from Rome. In 118, Adrian forgave arrears for 16 years totaling 980 million sesterces. He established a state post office and abolished the farming system, developed an alimentary system (in particular, the emperor increased the amount of child allowances) and took a number of effective measures to revive Italy's agriculture. Finally, he streamlined legal proceedings: by his order, in 130, the lawyer Publius Salvius Julian 1, on the basis of praetor edicts, developed the so-called Eternal Edict (Edictum peipetuum), published on behalf of Adrian himself. Since then, judicial law-making has become the exclusive prerogative of the emperor.

Hadrian traveled frequently and built a lot (especially in Greece). A passionate admirer of Greek culture, an intellectual and esthete, he became famous for his love of art and refined taste, leaving to his descendants a magnificent architectural ensemble of a villa in Tibur (modern Tivoli) with an area of ​​​​about 300 hectares, a grandiose temple of Venus and Roma, the famous Roman Pantheon and others structures. Adrian did a lot for the development of urban life. One of the few bursts of socio-political tension in his reign was an uprising in Judea led by Simon Bar Kochba 1 (132-135). Towards the end of his life, suffering from a serious illness, Adrian executed several senators without trial, thereby incurring universal hatred.

In July 138, the 62-year-old emperor died and was buried in a huge round mausoleum (now the Castel Sant'Angelo in Rome). Hadrian, like Nerva and Trajan, was childless. He was replaced on the throne by a 52-year-old adopted by him. Antoninus Pius (138-161), who gave the name to the whole dynasty. He achieved the deification of the late Adrian 1 from the Senate, for which he received the agnomen Pius("Pious"). Biographer Antoninus Pius wrote about him this way: “He stood out for his appearance, was famous for his good morals, was distinguished by noble mercy, had a calm expression on his face, possessed extraordinary talents, brilliant eloquence, knew literature excellently; was sober; took care that the fields were processed well; was soft, generous, did not encroach on someone else's; with all this, he had a good sense of proportion and the absence of any vanity. He was by nature very merciful and during his reign did not commit a single cruel act.

Having inherited from his adoptive father a state in a state of prosperity and stability, Antoninus Pius continued the policy of his predecessor and succeeded in this. During the reign of the noble and humane princeps, the Romans for a long time forgot what arbitrariness and abuse of power are. It was a rare period of relative prosperity and prosperity for the empire. With regard to the plebs, the policy of "bread and circuses" continued. The emperor issued a number of decrees that regulated the relationship between slaves and their masters: in particular, from now on, the master was responsible for the murder of a slave or ill-treatment; the law provided for slaves to engage in commerce, to have a family, and to enter into business relations with masters. Adhering to a peaceful policy, Antoninus Pius nevertheless had to fight a lot: his legates defeated the British and Moors, Germans and Dacians, suppressed unrest in the provinces and repelled barbarian raids. The meek and virtuous emperor died in March 161 at the age of 75, having transferred power to the co-rulers adopted by him, the 40-year-old Marcus Aurelius (161-180) and 30 year old Lucius Verus (16-169). The latter led a wild life and did not take part in the management of the empire.

A refined intellectual, a well-educated admirer of Stoic philosophy, Marcus Aurelius went down in history as a philosopher on the throne. After him, there remained a philosophical work written in Greek “To myself”. In this essay, Marcus Aurelius wrote: “Always zealously take care that the work you are currently busy with is done as worthy of a Roman and a husband, with full and sincere cordiality, with love for people, with freedom and justice; and also about putting aside all other ideas. You will succeed if you perform each task as the last in your life, free from all recklessness, from disregard for the conditions of reason due to passions, from hypocrisy and dissatisfaction with your fate. You see how few are the requirements, by fulfilling which, everyone can live a blissful and divine life. And the gods themselves will not demand anything more from the one who fulfills these requirements. The time of human life is a moment; its essence is an eternal flow; sensation is vague; the structure of the whole body is perishable; the soul is unstable; fate is mysterious; fame is unreliable. In a word, everything pertaining to the body is like a stream, pertaining to the soul is like a dream and smoke. Life is a struggle and a journey through a foreign land; posthumous glory - oblivion.

Marcus Aurelius was a man of duty, moral and modest; above all, he put the interests of the state and was fully aware of his responsibility for the fate of the empire. Under him, the quantitative and qualitative growth of the imperial bureaucracy continued. The emperor himself was actively involved in legal proceedings. His relations with the senatorial and equestrian estates were ideal. Marcus Aurelius brought into the senate many noble provincials, especially of Eastern and African origin. The emperor-philosopher, like his predecessors, pleased the capital's plebs with circuses and grain distributions, preserved the alimentary system and, on the whole, quite successfully ensured internal political stability. The legates of Marcus Aurelius easily suppressed uprisings in Britain and Egypt, and when in 175 the best commander of the empire, Gaius Avidius Cassius, raised a rebellion in the East, the emperor reacted to this event with a characteristic phrase: “We don’t live so badly so that he can win." Soon Cassius was killed by his own soldiers, and the rebellion ended. During the 19 years of his reign, not a single conspiracy was organized against Marcus Aurelius.

At the same time, the peace-loving and humane emperor had to wage difficult wars that threatened the empire with major troubles. In 161-165 years. with varying success there was a war with the Parthians who invaded Armenia and Syria. Having ousted the Parthians from there, the Roman legions occupied a significant part of Mesopotamia, but they could not gain a foothold in it and were forced to retreat. Nevertheless, in 166, Roman diplomats managed to conclude an advantageous peace treaty with Parthia, according to which Northern Mesopotamia became part of the empire, and Armenia entered the sphere of Roman influence.

In 167, taking advantage of the difficult position of Rome in connection with the Parthian War, the plague epidemic and crop failures in Italy, the Germanic tribes of the Quadi and Marcomanni, who belonged to the Suebi confederation, as well as the Sarmatians, broke through the Rhaeian-Danubian border and invaded Northern Italy. (First Marcomannic War, 167-175). To save Italy, the Senate, as during the war with Hannibal, took emergency measures: even robbers, slaves and gladiators were mobilized into the army, and Marcus Aurelius himself sold off part of the imperial property in order to raise funds for equipping the troops. In 169 the Romans ousted the barbarians from Italy. Subsequently, the Roman legions cleared the Danubian provinces of the enemy and crossed the Danube 1. In 175, peace was concluded, according to which the Germanic and Sarmatian tribes were under the Roman protectorate. However, the barbarians soon resumed their raids. In 177, Marcus Aurelius was forced to start the Second Marcomannic War (177-180). The onslaught of the barbarians was repulsed, the situation on the border stabilized. In March 180, at the age of 59, Marcus Aurelius died of the plague in Vindobon (modern Vienna). In Rome, a column was erected in honor of the emperor, crowned with his statue.

Marcus Aurelius was succeeded by his 18-year-old son Commodus (ISO-192), the last representative of the Antonine dynasty. He was a rude, cruel and voluptuous despot. After the death of his father, Commodus concluded a peace treaty with the Quadi and Marcomanni, after which he immediately departed for Rome, where he entrusted the administration of the state to his greedy slanderers, and indulged in wild revelry, drunkenness and debauchery. Having executed his wife, he started a harem. Distinguished by extraordinary physical strength and strong physique, the emperor proclaimed himself the “Invincible Roman Hercules”, appeared in public in the skin of a lion and with a club on his shoulder, personally participated in the persecution of wild animals, personally killing lions and elephants, and performed in the arena of the amphitheater as a gladiator. Completely distraught, Commodus renamed all the months of the calendar in his honor and even called Rome "the city of Commodus" (190). His biographer wrote about Commodus: “Drinking until dawn and squandering the funds of the Roman Empire, he dragged himself in the evenings to taverns and houses of debauchery. To govern the provinces, he sent either accomplices in his shameful adventures, or people recommended by these accomplices. He became so hated by the Senate that he himself, in turn, began to rage cruelly to the destruction of this great estate and turned from contemptible into terrible.

"Golden Age" of the Empire. After the cruel emperors-despots, a peaceful dynasty reigned in Rome for a long time Antoninov, leaving behind a good memory. The reign of the Antonines is called "golden age" Empires, this "age" occupies almost the entire second century of the new era. The most famous emperors of the "golden age" were the commander Trajan and philosopher Marcus Aurelius.

In the II century. AD The empire enjoyed inner peace. The Antonine emperors did not wage wars of conquest, but firmly guarded the main borders of the Roman state, which passed along the rivers Euphrates, Danube and Rhine. Beyond the Euphrates stretched the great Parthian kingdom (formerly Persia); on the banks of the Danube in present-day Romania, a kingdom of warlike Dacians; The Rhine separated Roman Gaul from the wild Germanic tribes. More than once, border wars broke out in these areas, during which the Roman legions invaded enemy territory.

Under the Antonines, normal relations were established between the emperors and the senate, executions and persecutions ceased, people were able to freely express their thoughts. The historian Tacitus, who lived to this time, wrote: “The years of rare happiness have come, when everyone can think what he wants and say what he thinks.”

Under the Antonines, the position of the provinces changed: they began to gradually become equal in rights with Italy. Many provincials became Roman citizens, the most noble of them entered the Roman Senate. Greek writer of the 2nd century Elius Aristides said, addressing the Romans: “With you, everything is open to everyone. Anyone who is worthy of public office ceases to be considered a foreigner. The name of the Roman became the property of all cultural mankind. You have set up the world as if it were one family.” Soon after the Antonine dynasty was interrupted, the unification of the Roman state, which was carried out under her rule, was completed: in 212 AD By edict of the Emperor Caracalla, the entire population of the Empire received Roman citizenship.

Trajan. Mark Ulpius Trajan reigned at the beginning of the Antonine dynasty. He was born into a noble Roman family living in Spain. From a young age, Trajan served in the army and under the leadership of his father went from a subordinate officer to the commander of the Rhine legions. When he was 45 years old, the old emperor Nerva adopted him, seeing in him the most worthy citizen and successor to his power. In 98 AD Trajan became emperor.

The new head of the Roman state possessed the outstanding qualities of a warrior: he was very strong, excellently wielded weapons, without fear seized in the thicket with predatory animals, loved to swim in a stormy sea.

He always ate simple soldier's food, in the campaign he walked ahead of the troops. Modesty, justice, a sober mind, a cheerful disposition were combined with these courageous qualities.

When Trajan became emperor, his personal life and habits changed little. He walked around Rome and was available to petitioners. He was not afraid of conspirators, and completely destroyed denunciations by not paying attention to them. He said that he wanted to be the kind of ruler he would wish for himself if he remained a mere subject. Handing over the sword to the head of the palace guard, he solemnly proclaimed: "Take this sword to use it for my protection if I rule well, and to use it against me if I rule badly." The Senate officially recognized Trajan as the best emperor. Subsequently, when the rulers of Rome came to the throne, they wanted to be happier than Augustus and better than Trajan.

During the reign of Trajan, great wars were fought on the Euphrates and the Danube. In two campaigns, the emperor defeated the Dacian kingdom, which threatened the northern border of the Empire, and led the Roman settlers to the left bank of the Danube. In memory of these victories, the majestic Trajan Column was erected in Rome, decorated with reliefs depicting the Dacian War.

The campaign for the Euphrates against the Parthians ended with the capture of the Parthian capital. The Romans reached the shores of the Persian Gulf, but the uprisings that broke out in the rear forced Trajan to withdraw the legions back. On his way back home, he suddenly fell ill and died (AD 117).

Marcus Aurelius. The reign of Marcus Aurelius ended the "golden age" of the Empire.

For a long time, prominent thinkers dreamed of seeing a sage, a “philosopher on the throne” at the head of the state. Marcus Aurelius proved to be the embodiment of this ideal: he was an emperor and a famous Stoic philosopher. He began to study science at the age of 12 and continued these studies all his life. He left behind a large philosophical work in Greek called “To Myself”. It expresses the most sincere thoughts of the emperor about life, about the soul, about duty.

The worldview of Marcus Aurelius was rather gloomy. The time of human life, he wrote, is one moment, the body is mortal, fate is incomprehensible; life is a struggle and wandering in a foreign land, posthumous glory is oblivion. Despite such thoughts, Marcus Aurelius instructed himself in cheerfulness. He believed that the divine principle that lives in our soul tells us to live in harmony with nature, fulfilling all the requirements of life. The main thing is love for people and the fulfillment of duty to them.

Marcus Aurelius lived in full accordance with his rules. He was weary of imperial power, but conscientiously and well fulfilled all the duties of a ruler, even such a difficult task as commanding an army. With strangers, he was affable and fair, close - respected and loved. With amazing patience, he endured the bad temper of his beautiful wife, her constant betrayal. His expression was always calm.

Under Marcus Aurelius, numerous troubles fell upon the Empire, foreshadowing the end of prosperous times: the Moors attacked the southern borders, the Parthians attacked the eastern ones, the Germans and Sarmatians crossed the Danube. On top of the misfortunes, a plague epidemic swept across the Empire.

The emperor personally led the army in two large and victorious wars on the Danube against the Germans and Sarmatians. Here the plague overtook him. In 180 AD the last worthy emperor of the Antonine dynasty died of an epidemic in the military camp of Vindobona (modern Vienna). His son, who resumed the bad habits of despot emperors, having reigned for 12 years, became the victim of a palace conspiracy. His outrages and death ended the almost hundred-year-old happy era of the Antonines.

In Rome, two monuments to Marcus Aurelius have been preserved: a magnificent equestrian statue of the emperor and a column erected in honor of his victory over the Sarmatians and Germans:

The heyday of imperial cities in the II century. AD In Western countries - Spain, France, Germany, Britain - one often comes across dilapidated by time, but still majestic Roman structures: temples, amphitheaters, arches, ramparts. Some Roman roads and aqueducts still serve people today. Most of these structures date back to the Antonine age. It was in the II century. AD the cities of the Roman provinces, both western and eastern, multiplied in number and improved. Their forums were freed from trading shops, turning into front squares, decorated with temples, basilicas (judicial buildings), and statues. Colonnaded streets appeared - avenues, on both sides of which stood columns supporting roofs over footpaths. Triumphal arches were often placed at the beginning and end of these streets. Many cities along the Rhine and Danube arose on the site of Roman military camps - such famous modern capitals as Bonn, Vienna, and Budapest originated from them. Gradually Romanized, i.e. turned into cities of the Roman type, settlements of western native tribes; for example, the center of the Gaulish tribe of the Parisii became a city with the Latin name of Lutetia, and later received the name of Paris. The lands around the Romanized cities were covered with olive orchards and vineyards. Once wild countries - Gaul and Spain - began to trade their own wine and olive oil. Aelius Aristides, mentioned above, wrote: “In our time, all cities compete with each other in beauty and attractiveness. Everywhere there are many squares, water pipes, solemn portals, temples, craft workshops, schools. Cities shine with splendor and beauty, and the whole earth blooms like a garden...”

Aqueducts. Among the architectural monuments of the Empire, water pipes are especially impressive. aqueducts. They stand in low-lying places where water gutters, in order to maintain a uniform level above the ground, were raised to high, powerful arcades stretching for tens of kilometers.

The Pont du Gard is the highest surviving ancient Roman aqueduct:

length 275 meters, height 47 meters.

The world's largest aqueduct, the Carthaginian (II century AD), has a length of 132 km, the height of its two-tier arcade reaches 40 m. The aqueduct in the Spanish city of Segovia (II century AD) is still in operation. Throughout the Empire, about 100 cities were supplied with water using aqueducts.

Thermae. Aqueducts supplied water to public baths, or terms spread throughout the Empire from Britain to the Euphrates. The Romans borrowed the idea of ​​the Greek gymnasium, adding bathhouses to parks and sports grounds. Actually baths consisted of three compartments with cold, warm and hot water. They were heated by hollow ceramic pipes through which hot steam passed. In general, the terms included swimming pools, rooms for relaxation and conversation, libraries, jogging tracks, sports grounds, and flower beds. The imperial baths, built as a gift to the Roman people, were distinguished by their huge size and luxury. They were visited by the middle urban strata and the poor. Noble and rich people preferred small home baths. The most famous terms of the II century. AD were the baths of Trajan in Rome.

Limesy. Until now, the Roman border fortifications, called limes (limes translated from Latin - “border”, “border”). A well-fortified limes was an earthen rampart or stone wall hundreds of kilometers long. Sometimes another ditch was dug in front of the rampart and a palisade was placed. Along the shaft, not far from each other, there were towers with guard detachments. A few towers stood fortresses adjoining the rampart. In the rear of these fortifications there was a large legion camp, connected with them by military roads. More simple limes consisted of only fortifications connected by convenient paths. The remains of limes are clearly visible in Britain, on the Rhine, on the Danube. Part of the Trayanov Wall passes through the territory of Moldova, which was part of the Dacian kingdom. The mighty Antonine Wall has been preserved in the north of England.

Reconstructed Limes in Welzheim

Famous buildings of Rome. In the II century. world-famous buildings were erected in Rome - these are Pantheon and Forum of Trajan. The Pantheon, the temple of all the gods, is a round building covered by a huge dome (one of the largest in the world). Unlike the Greek temples, the Pantheon does not look like the house of a god, but a circle of lands, overshadowed by the vault of heaven. From a hole in the ceiling, a stream of light pours into the center of the temple, scattering along the edges of the vast interior space. The contrast of light and twilight creates a mysterious, prayerful mood.

The Forum of Trajan was built to commemorate the emperor's victory over the Dacians. Through the triumphal arch, the visitor entered a wide square, in the center of which stood an equestrian statue of the emperor. Far behind the statue, on a high pedestal, rose a luxurious marble and granite basilica, above its gilded roof the top of a triumphal column standing behind it was visible. Climbing the steps and passing through the basilica, full of gray and golden columns, the traveler found himself on the second, semicircular square. Libraries for Latin and Greek manuscripts stood on its sides, and between them rose a column, entwined like a ribbon with painted reliefs depicting military scenes. The ashes of Trajan were immured into the pedestal of the column, on top of it there was a statue of the emperor in ancient times.

The Forum of Trajan and the Pantheon were built by the brilliant Greek architect Apollodorus of Damascus. Both structures expressed the bright spirit of both Greek art and the time when they were created.

Forum of Trajan

Western and Eastern provinces. Although the vast Roman Empire was a single state, it seemed to be an invisible border between the eastern and western Provinces. The East spoke Greek, built structures of stone and preserved the ancient Greek and Greco-Oriental culture. The West adopted the Latin language, Roman culture and Roman building materials - concrete and baked bricks. Greeks, becoming Roman citizens, continued to consider themselves Greeks. The Spaniards and Gauls, who spoke Latin, considered themselves Romans. Today these peoples speak Romance languages ​​derived from Latin.

Gallic martyrs. In the middle of the II century. AD the war between the Empire and the Christian Church subsided. At this time, the Christian religion, having conquered the cities, penetrated into schools, into the palaces of senators, into the army. But at the beginning and at the end of the “golden age”, under Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, persecution of Christians took place in Rome and the provinces. Especially cruel persecution broke out in Gaul during the time of Marcus Aurelius.

In the Gallic city of Lugdun (Lyon) and in the neighboring city of Vienna, the pagan population persecuted Christians for a long time, driving them out of all public places - from baths, from markets, squares; they were mistaken for people committing secret crimes. Finally, a pogrom broke out: Christians were seized, beaten, dragged to the court before the city authorities. The head of the city, conducting an interrogation, ordered the confessors of the faith to be thrown into prison. There were so many prisoners that they died in dungeons from stuffiness, but only 10 people renounced their faith in Christ. The stubborn were tortured: they were scourged, their legs were stretched, they were put on a red-hot metal chair. The martyrs, enduring all the suffering, continued to repeat: I am a Christian. Surprising firmness was shown by women, especially the young fragile slave Blandina; her body turned into a continuous wound, even the executioners were tired of the torture, and she, as if not feeling pain, repeated: “I am a Christian, nothing bad is being done here.” The massacre ended in the city amphitheater, where Christians were thrown to be torn to pieces by wild animals or killed in some other way.

The story of the Gallic martyrs is preserved in a letter written by the surviving Christians to their fellow believers in Asia Minor. (see addendum to §21)

1. What period is called the golden age of the Roman Empire? With the activities of which emperors is the power of the empire associated?

The golden age of the Roman Empire is associated with the rule of five good emperors from the Antonine dynasty, who ruled from 96 to 180. They successively succeeded each other without dynastic crises, while all five actively participated in the management of the empire personally solving problems that arose. They mean:

Marc Koktsei Nerva (96-98):

Mark Ulpiy Trayan (98-117):

Publius Aelius Hadrian (117-138):

Antoninus Pius (138-161):

Marcus Aurelius (161-180).

2. Specify the economic and political reasons for the crisis of the Roman Empire. How did the economic structure and social structure of Roman society and the rights of its citizens change?

Causes of the crisis of the Roman Empire.

The fall in average annual temperatures led to a crisis in agriculture.

Emperor Septimius Severus changed the system of command and control of the army. Before him, the commanders (legates) of the legions were politicians, for whom this position was just a brief episode in their careers. The soldiers did not consider them theirs. The North introduced the practice of appointing legates of the legions from lower-ranking commanders. Soon there were people who spent their whole lives in the army, who were trusted by soldiers and who began to receive the highest command positions, that is, political weight. It was these people who became the so-called soldier emperors, civil wars between which tormented the Roman Empire for several decades.

After the good emperors came the rule of several bad ones at the turn of the II-III centuries. Some of the emperors who succeeded each other then did not manage the empire at all, but only surprised the people with their eccentricities and cruelties.

Civil wars that lasted for several decades disrupted economic ties between the provinces, making unprofitable commodity farms that had previously flourished large latifundia, most farms became subsistence, an economically unified empire was no longer needed with subsistence farming.

Legions for several decades engaged in war with each other, and not with external enemies. During this time, the wild tribes on the borders of the empire got used to successful campaigns in the empire, which brought rich booty, scouted the routes of such campaigns and were not going to refuse.

- During civil wars, all sides used to use barbarians as mercenaries, after the end of civil wars, this practice was continued. As a result, the Roman army no longer consisted predominantly of Romans, but of barbarians, and at all levels, including the highest command positions.

The seemingly endless streak of disasters led to a spiritual crisis in the empire, as a result of which new cults gained popularity, the main of which were Mithraism and Christianity.

As a result of civil wars, as mentioned above, subsistence farming prevailed in the Roman Empire. Under subsistence economy, in contrast to commodity economy, the use of slaves ceased to be effective, their share in society was reduced. Instead, the number of columns increased - dependent people who worked on the land of the owner for part of the harvest (from this institution the estate of serfs later developed). During the crisis, all the inhabitants of the empire became Roman citizens. Because of this, citizenship has ceased to be a privilege, as it used to be, it has ceased to carry additional rights, only duties in the form of taxes remain. And after the deification of the ruler, the citizens finally turned into subjects.

3. Consider: what were the goals of the administrative reforms of Diocletian and Constantine?

Diocletian and Constantine deified the power of the emperors, hoping by this to prevent further actions of the military commanders (they could not achieve this goal). In addition, the new administrative division of the empire into smaller provinces and the transfer of many officials from monetary to in-kind allowance (which was easier to deliver to the centers of smaller provinces) corresponded to the changed economic conditions, the actual transition of the empire to subsistence farming.

4. Fill in the table. What factors do you think played a decisive role in the decline of Rome?

As can be seen from the table, there were more internal reasons for the fall of the Western Roman Empire, they played a big role. Rome of the times of good emperors, perhaps, could withstand the onslaught of the Great Migration of Nations, the state, weakened by the crisis, could not cope with this task. On the other hand, it was the barbaric onslaught that led to the aggravation of the crisis and did not give time to overcome it. Therefore, it is really impossible to separate internal and external causes; their combination led to the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

5. What was the spiritual crisis of Roman society? Why did the Christian church become a cohesive organization that became an influential political and economic force?

The spiritual crisis was expressed in the growing popularity of numerous non-traditional cults for Roman society. And it is not only about Christianity and Mithraism, Eastern cults of various kinds flourished in large numbers.

In the conditions of a long crisis, all strata of society did not have confidence in the future. Christianity gave this certainty regarding, if not this world, but the future. Because of this, many representatives of the privileged strata of society became Christians. They introduced many elements of the Roman civil order into the Christian church, which made church life more orderly and structured. The beginning of the persecution of Christians activated this structure and rallied the Christian church, which was trying to resist the persecution. Given that this church united many people from the upper strata of society, it disposed of their capital and political influence, becoming a powerful force in the state.

6. Make a detailed response plan on the topic "The Fall of the Western Roman Empire."

1. Strengthening the onslaught of peoples from the stream of the Great Migration to the borders of the Roman Empire.

2. Permission for the Visigoths to settle in Roman territory.

3. The uprising of the Visigoths in 378 and their successful actions against the Roman troops.

4. The final division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern after the death of Theodosius the Great in 395

5. Settlement of new barbarian tribes on Roman territory and their uprisings.

6. Periodic uprisings of the Roman generals (over time, more and more often from among the barbarians), their attempts to usurp the throne.

7. Fight against the invasion of the Huns.

8. Board in the Western Roman Empire often replaced by weak, often juvenile emperors.

9. Coup Odoacer, the end of the Western Roman Empire.

The golden age of the Roman Empire is usually called the period of the centenary rule of the Antonine dynasty. This is the period when Ancient Rome reached its highest level of economic development.

The reign of Mark Trajan: domestic and foreign policy

An important role in this was played by the wise policy of its rulers. In 98, Mark Ulpius Trajan, a descendant of a noble Roman colonist family, became the Roman Emperor, who managed to go from an army officer to the commander-in-chief of the Roman legions.

The emperor strictly monitored the implementation of all laws, his policy was distinguished by liberality unusual for that time.

The emperor gave the peasants the opportunity to take loans at low interest from the state treasury for the development of agriculture.

Thanks to this, the Roman Empire gained independence from foreign supplies of bread. Under Trajan's rule, life in the Roman provinces became economically stable.

Trajan was able not only to raise the standard of living within the country, but also pursued an active foreign policy. The emperor was able to defeat the old Roman enemy Parthia, from which there were constant threats to capture Rome.

Thanks to the victorious series of campaigns of the Romans under the command of Trajan against the Dacian tribes, Rome was able not only to assert its power on the banks of the Danube, but also to create the Roman province of Dacia there.

The reign of Marcus Avelius: the right to education

Another monarch during whose reign Rome continued to flourish was the famous ancient Roman emperor-philosopher, Marcus Aurelius.

He, in addition to his political activities, went down in history as a literary figure. In his works, the future emperor wrote about the equality of all people, that each person must first of all uphold moral and spiritual principles.

When Marcus Aurelius became Roman emperor, he boldly began to put his theoretical ideas into practice. The emperor always addressed the citizens of Rome as equals, never made a difference between representatives of different classes of society.

Marcus Aurelius opened various educational institutions that taught grammar and arithmetic. Everyone had the right to education, regardless of age and position.

Marcus Aurelius was distinguished by a calm disposition, but when the threat of capture by the barbarians loomed over Rome, the emperor was able to defend the city.

Rome during the Golden Age: the wisdom and humanism of the rulers

During the Golden Age, Rome became a large and prosperous city. His fame spread to other states. During this period, new temples, roads, houses, public buildings were built in Rome. Each of them was distinguished by unsurpassed architectural forms.

All the cities of the Empire began to align with the capital. In the eyes of the citizens of the Roman Empire, Rome was the symbol of world power and the most advanced of all existing civilizations.

Naturally, this increased the flow of people who were looking for their happiness in Rome. At the time of the end of the reign of the last emperor from the Antonines - Commodus, there were more than one and a half million inhabitants in Rome.