Chemistry in modern technologies

Elpatova Olga Ivanovna,

Chemistry teacher

The purpose of the work is to analyze the history of the creation of computers and show which chemical elements are used in the development of computer technologies.

Over the past few decades, computer technology has been developing along the path of ever greater miniaturization of parts and an ever greater rise in the cost of their production. Microprocessors of the latest generations contain a huge number of transistors (10 million or more) with dimensions of a tenth of a micron (10-7 meters). The next step towards the microcosm will lead to nanometers (10-9 meters) and billions of transistors in one chip. A little more - and we will fall into the range of atomic sizes, where the laws of quantum mechanics begin to operate.

Richard Feynman noted twenty years ago that the laws of physics will not prevent the reduction in the size of computing devices until "until bits reach the size of atoms, and quantum behavior becomes dominant." Another problem that indicates that modern computer technology is becoming obsolete is the problem of approaching the speed limit. Thus, modern computer media are capable of containing millions of records that existing search algorithms can no longer cope with.

This led to an increase in the performance of the computer as a whole. The starting point of all "technological breakthroughs" in computer technology are discoveries in the fundamental sciences, such as physics and chemistry.

In computer technology, there is a periodization of the development of electronic computers. Computers are referred to one or another generation depending on the type of the main elements used in it or on the technology of their manufacture.

An analysis of the history of the creation of computers has shown that in the development of computer technologies there has been a tendency to reduce the size of key elements and increase the speed of their switching. As a basis, we took the theory of five generations of computers instead of six, because we believe that we are at the turn of the fourth and fifth generations.

One of the first chemical elements encountered in the history of computers is germanium. Germanium one of the most important elements for technological progress, since, along with silicon, germanium has become the most important semiconductor material.

In appearance, germanium is easily confused with silicon. These elements are not only competitors claiming to be the main semiconductor material, but also analogues. However, despite the similarity of many technical properties, distinguishing a germanium ingot from a silicon ingot is quite simple: germanium is more than twice as heavy as silicon.

Formally, a semiconductor is a substance with resistivity from thousandths to millions of ohms per 1 cm.

Remarkable is the sensitivity of germanium not only to external influences. The properties of germanium are strongly influenced by even negligible amounts of impurities. The chemical nature of impurities is no less important.

The addition of an element of the V group makes it possible to obtain a semiconductor with an electronic type of conductivity. This is how hydroelectric power stations are prepared (electronic germanium doped with antimony). By adding an element of group III, we will create in it a hole type of conductivity (most often it is GDH - hole germanium doped with gallium).

Recall that “holes” are places vacated by electrons that have moved to another energy level. The "apartment" vacated by the migrant can be immediately occupied by his neighbor, but he also had his own apartment. Resettlements are made one after another, and the hole moves.

The combination of areas with electronic and hole conduction formed the basis of the most important semiconductor devices - diodes and transistors.

The creation of diodes formed the basisfirst generation computersbased on vacuum tubes in the 40s. These are electrovacuum diodes and triodes, which are a glass bulb, in the center of which a tungsten filament was placed.

Tungsten are usually classified as rare metals. It differs from all other metals in its special severity, hardness and refractoriness.

At the beginning of the XX century. tungsten filament began to be used in electric light bulbs: it allows you to bring the heat up to 2200 ° C and has a high light output. And in this capacity, tungsten is absolutely indispensable today. The indispensability of tungsten in this area is explained not only by its refractoriness, but also by its ductility. From one kilogram of tungsten, a wire 3.5 km long is drawn,those. this kilogram is enough to make filaments for 23,000 60-watt light bulbs. It is due to this property that the global electrical industry consumes only about 100 tons of tungsten per year.

Electronic stuffing UNIVAC amounted to more than 5000 vacuum tubes. Memory on mercury flasks made it possible to store information up to one and a half kilobytes. The most notable element in the design of UNIVAC was a special drive that allowed information to be written to and read from magnetic tape. The use of an electron tube as the main element of a computer created many problems. Due to the fact that the height of the glass lamp is 7cm, the cars were huge. Every 7-8 min. one of the lamps broke down, and since there were 15-20 thousand of them in the computer, it took a very long time to find and replace a damaged lamp. In addition, they generated a huge amount of heat, and special cooling systems were required to operate the "modern" computer of that time.

The appearance of the first generation of computers became possible due to three technical innovations: electronic vacuum tubes, digital coding of information and the creation of artificial memory devices on electrostatic tubes.

In second generation computersused instead of vacuum tubes transistors, invented in 1948. It was a point-contact device in which three metal "antennae" were in contact with a bar of polycrystalline germanium. Polycrystalline germanium was obtainedfusing indium on both sides of the HES plate. All areas require germanium of very high purity - physical and chemical. To achieve it, single-crystal germanium is grown: the entire ingot is one crystal.

Transistors were more reliable, durable, had a large RAM.

With the invention of the transistor and the use of new technologies for storing data in memory, it became possible to significantly reduce the size of computers, make them faster and more reliable, and also significantly increase the memory capacity of computers.

Just as the advent of transistors led to the creation of the second generation of computers, the advent ofintegrated circuitsmarked a new stage in the development of computer technology - the birth ofthird generation machines.

An integrated circuit, also called a chip, is a miniature electronic circuit etched onto the surface of a silicon chip with an area of ​​about 10 mm. 2 . Until 1965, most semiconductor devices were made on a germanium basis. But in subsequent years, the process of gradually replacing germanium by itself began to develop. silicon . This element is the second most abundant on Earth after oxygen. Not perfect, but simply high-purity and ultra-pure silicon has become the most important semiconductor material. At a temperature other than absolute zero, its own conductivity arises in it, and the carriers of electric current are not only free electrons, but also the so-called holes - places abandoned by electrons.

By introducing certain alloying additives into ultrapure silicon, one or another type of conductivity is created in it. Additions of elements of the third group of the periodic table lead to the creation of hole conductivity, and the fifth - electronic.

Silicon semiconductor devicesfavorably differ from germanium ones, first of all, by better performance at elevated temperatures and lower reverse currents. The great advantage of silicon was also the resistance of its dioxide to external influences. It was she who made it possible to create the most advanced planar technology for the production of semiconductor devices, consisting in the fact that a silicon wafer is heated in oxygen or a mixture of oxygen with water vapor, and it is covered with a protective layer of SiO 2 .

After etching the "windows" in the right places, dopants are introduced through them, contacts are connected here, and the device as a whole, meanwhile, is protected from external influences. For germanium, such a technology is not yet possible: the stability of its dioxide is insufficient.

Under the onslaught of silicon, gallium arsenide and other semiconductors, germanium lost its position as the main semiconductor material. In 1968, the United States was producing far more silicon transistors than germanium ones.

A small plate of crystalline material, approximately 1 mm in size 2 turns into the most complex electronic device, equivalent to a radio engineering unit of 50-100 or more ordinary parts. It is capable of amplifying or generating signals and performing many other radio functions.

The first integrated circuits (ICs) appeared in 1964. The advent of IC meant a real revolution in computing. After all, it alone is capable of replacing thousands of transistors, each of which, in turn, has already replaced 40 vacuum tubes. The speed of third-generation computers has increased 100 times, and the dimensions have significantly decreased. At the same time, semiconductor memory appeared, which is still used in personal computers as operational memory.

The idea of ​​an integrated microcircuit appeared - a silicon crystal on which miniature transistors and other elements are mounted. In the same year, the first sample of an integrated circuit appeared, containing five transistor elements on a germanium crystal. Scientists quickly learned how to place dozens, and then hundreds and more transistor elements on one integrated circuit. Third-generation computers ran at speeds up to one million operations per second.

Since the mid-1970s, there have been fewer fundamental innovations in computer science. Progress is mostly on the waydevelopment of what has already been invented and thought up, - first of all, by increasing the power and miniaturization of the element base and the computers themselves.

In the early 70s. an attempt was made to find out whether it is possible to place more than one integrated circuit on one chip. The development of microelectronics led to the creationfourth generationmachines and the emergencelarge integrated circuits. It became possible to place thousands of integrated circuits on a single chip.

This made it possible to combine most of the computer components in a single miniature part - which Intel did in 1971, releasing the first microprocessor. It was possible to place the central processing unit of a small computer on a chip, an area of ​​​​only a quarter of a square inch (1.61 cm 2 ). The era of microcomputers has begun.

Integrated circuits already contained thousands of transistors. What is the speed of a modern microcomputer? It is 10 times faster than third-generation computers based on integrated circuits, 1000 times faster than second-generation computers based on transistors, and 100,000 times faster than first-generation computers using vacuum tubes.

Therefore, computers with higher speed characteristics are needed. Therefore, experts around the world have taken up the solution of this problem by creating the computing system of the future. Quantum computers are currently being experimentally developed.biocomputer, neurocomputer, optical computer, probabilistic computer of nanoelectronics, nanocomputer, nanorobots, molecular-mechanical automata, high-temperature semiconductor materials.

For a long time, everyday goods necessary for a person (food, clothing, paints) were produced by processing mainly natural raw materials of plant origin. Modern chemical technologies make it possible to synthesize from raw materials of not only natural, but also artificial origin, numerous and diverse products in their properties that are not inferior to natural analogues. The potential possibilities of chemical transformations of natural substances are truly unlimited. Increasing flows of natural raw materials: oil, gas, coal, mineral salts, silicates, ores, etc. - are converted into paints, varnishes, soaps, mineral fertilizers, motor fuels, plastics, artificial fibers, plant protection products, biologically active substances, medicines and various raw materials for the production of other necessary and valuable substances.

The pace of scientific and technical development of chemical technologies is growing rapidly. If in the middle of the XIX century. it took 35 years for the industrial development of the electrochemical process of obtaining aluminum, then in the 50s of the XX century. large-scale production of polyethylene at low pressure was established in less than 4 years. At large enterprises in developed countries, approximately 25% of working capital is spent on research and development, development of new technologies and materials, which makes it possible to significantly update the range of products in about 10 years. In many countries, industrial enterprises produce about 50% of products that were not produced at all 20 years ago. At some advanced enterprises, its share reaches 75-80%.

The development of new chemicals is a laborious and costly process. For example, to find and synthesize just a few drugs suitable for industrial production, it is necessary to manufacture at least 4000 varieties of substances. For plant protection products, this figure can reach 10,000. In the recent past, in the United States, for every chemical product introduced into mass production, there were approximately 450 research developments, of which only 98 were selected for pilot production. After pilot tests, only no more than 50% of the selected products found wide practical application. However, the practical significance of the products obtained in such a complex way is so great that the costs of research and development pay off very quickly.

Thanks to the successful interaction of chemists, physicists, mathematicians, biologists, engineers and other specialists, new developments appear that provide an impressive growth in the production of chemical products in the last decade, as evidenced by the following figures. If the total output of products in the world for 10 years (1950-1960) increased by about 3 times, then the volume of chemical production for the same period increased by 20 times. Over a ten-year period (1961-1970), the average annual increase in industrial production in the world was 6.7%, and chemical - 9.7%. In the 1970s, the increase in chemical production, amounting to about 7%, ensured its approximately doubling. It is assumed that at such growth rates, by the end of this century, the chemical industry will take the first place in terms of output.

Chemical technologies and related industrial production cover all the most important areas of the national economy, including various sectors of the economy. The interaction of chemical technologies and various fields of human activity is conventionally shown in Fig. 6.1, where the designations are introduced: BUT- chemical and textile industry, pulp and paper and light industry, glass and ceramics production, production of various materials, construction, mining, metallurgy; B– machine and instrument engineering, electronics and electrical engineering, communications, military affairs, agriculture and forestry, food industry, environmental protection, health care, household, media; AT– increased labor productivity, material savings, advances in health care; G– improvement of working and living conditions, rationalization of mental work; D– health, nutrition, clothing, recreation; E- housing, culture, upbringing, education, environmental protection, defense.

Let us give some examples of the application of chemical technologies. For the production of modern computers, integrated circuits are needed, the manufacturing technology of which is based on the use of silicon. However, there is no chemically pure silicon in nature. But in large quantities there is silicon dioxide in the form of sand. Chemical technology allows ordinary sand to be turned into elemental silicon. Another typical example. Road transport burns a huge amount of fuel. What needs to be done to achieve minimal atmospheric pollution by exhaust gases? Partially, this problem is solved with the help of an automobile exhaust gas catalytic converter. Its radical solution is provided by the use of chemical technologies, namely, chemical manipulations of the feedstock - crude oil, processed into refined products that are efficiently burned in car engines.

A significant part of the world's population is directly or indirectly associated with chemical technologies. Thus, by the end of the 1980s in one country alone - the United States - more than 1 million people were employed in the chemical industry and related industries, including over 150,000 scientists and process engineers. In those years, chemical products were sold in the United States for about 175-180 billion dollars a year.

Chemical technology and related industries are forced to respond to society's desire to preserve the environment. Depending on the political atmosphere, such a desire can range from reasonable caution to panic. In any case, the economic consequence is an increase in product prices due to the costs of achieving the desired goal of preserving the environment, ensuring the safety of workers, proving the safety and effectiveness of new products, etc. Of course, all these costs are paid by the consumer and they are significantly reflected on the competitiveness of manufactured products.

Of interest are some figures relating to manufactured and consumed products. In the early 70s of the XX century. The average city dweller used 300–500 various chemical products in daily life, of which about 60 were in the form of textiles, about 200 in everyday life, at work and during leisure, about 50 medicines, and the same number of food products and cooking tools. The manufacturing technology of some food products includes up to 200 different chemical processes.

About ten years ago, there were more than 1 million varieties of products manufactured by the chemical industry. By that time, the total number of known chemical compounds was more than 8 million, including approximately 60 thousand inorganic compounds. Today, more than 18 million chemical compounds are known. In all laboratories of our planet, 200–250 new chemical compounds are synthesized daily. The synthesis of new substances depends on the perfection of chemical technologies and, to a large extent, on the efficiency of controlling chemical transformations.

1. 1. Introduction3
2. 2. Chemical industry3
3. 3. Chemical technology7
4. 4. Conclusion8

References9

Introduction

The chemical industry is the second leading branch of the industry after electronics, which most rapidly ensures the introduction of the achievements of scientific and technological progress in all spheres of the economy and contributes to the acceleration of the development of productive forces in each country. A feature of the modern chemical industry is the orientation of the main science-intensive industries (pharmaceutical, polymeric materials, reagents and highly pure substances), as well as products of perfumery and cosmetics, household chemicals, etc. to ensure the daily needs of a person and his health.

The development of the chemical industry led to the process of chemicalization of the national economy. It involves the widespread use of industry products, the full introduction of chemical processes in various sectors of the economy. Such industries as oil refining, thermal power engineering (except for nuclear power plants), pulp and paper, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, production of building materials (cement, brick, etc.), as well as many food industries are based on the use -vania chemical processes of changing the structures of the original substance. At the same time, they often need the products of the chemical industry itself, i.e. thereby stimulating its accelerated development.

Chemical industry

The chemical industry is an industry that includes the production of products from hydrocarbon, mineral and other raw materials by chemical processing. Gross production of the chemical industry in the world is about 2 trillion. dollars. The volume of industrial production of the chemical and petrochemical industry in Russia in 2004 amounted to 528,156 million rubles.

The chemical industry became a separate industry with the onset of the industrial revolution. The first plants for the production of sulfuric acid, the most important of the mineral acids used by man, were built in 1740 (Great Britain, Richmond), in 1766 (France, Rouen), in 1805 (Russia, Moscow region), in 1810 (Germany, Leipzig). To meet the needs of the developing textile and glass industries, the production of soda ash arose. The first soda plants appeared in 1793 (France, Paris), in 1823 (Great Britain, Liverpool), in 1843 (Germany, Schönebeck-on-Elbe), in 1864 (Russia, Barnaul). With the development in the middle of the XIX century. artificial fertilizer plants appeared in agriculture: in 1842 in Great Britain, in 1867 in Germany, in 1892 in Russia.

Raw material connections, the early emergence of the industry contributed to the emergence of Great Britain as a world leader in chemical production during three quarters of the 19th century. From the end of the 19th century Germany is becoming the leader in the chemical industry with the growing demand of economies for organic substances. Thanks to the rapid process of concentration of production, a high level of scientific and technological development, an active trade policy, Germany by the beginning of the 20th century. conquers the world market of chemical products. In the United States, the chemical industry began to develop later than in Europe, but by 1913, in terms of production of chemical products, the United States occupied and has since held the first place in the world among states. This is facilitated by the richest mineral resources, a developed transport network, and a powerful domestic market. Only by the end of the 1980s did the chemical industry of the EU countries in general terms exceed the volume of production in the USA.

Table 1

Sub-sectors of the chemical industry

All the specific features of the chemical industry that have been noted are currently having a great influence on the structure of the industry. In the chemical industry, the share of high-value science-intensive products is increasing. The production of many types of mass products that require large expenditures of raw materials, energy, water and are unsafe for the environment is being stabilized or even reduced. However, the processes of structural adjustment proceed differently in certain groups of states and regions. This has a noticeable impact on the geography of certain groups of industries in the world.

The greatest impact on the development of the economy of the world and the conditions of everyday life of human society had in the second half of the XX century. polymeric materials, products of their processing.

Industry of polymeric materials. It and the production of initial types of hydrocarbons for synthesis, semi-products from them account for 30 to 45% of the cost of products of the chemical industry in the developed countries of the world. This is the basis of the entire industry, its core, closely connected with almost all chemical industries. Raw materials for obtaining initial hydrocarbons, semi-products and polymers themselves are mainly oil, associated and natural gas. Their consumption for the production of this wide range of products is relatively small: only 5-6% of the oil produced in the world and 5-6% of natural gas.

Plastics and synthetic resin industry. Synthetic resins are mainly used to produce chemical fibers, and plastics are most often the starting materials for construction. This predetermines their use in many areas of industry, construction, as well as products made from them in everyday life. Many types of plastics, even more of their brands have been created in recent decades. There is a whole class of industrial plastics for the most critical products in mechanical engineering (fluoroplastics, etc.).

The chemical fiber industry revolutionized the entire light industry. In the 30s. the role of chemical fibers in the structure of textiles was negligible: 30% of them were wool, about 70% were cotton and other fibers of plant origin. Chemical fibers are increasingly being used for technical purposes. The scope of their application in the economy and household consumption is constantly growing.

Synthetic rubber industry. The demand for rubber products in the world (only automobile tires are produced annually 1 billion) is increasingly provided by the use of synthetic rubber. It accounts for 2/3 of the total production of natural and synthetic rubbers. The production of the latter has a number of advantages (less costs for the construction of factories than for the creation of plantations; less labor costs for its factory production; lower price compared to natural rubber, etc.). Therefore, its release has developed in more than 30 states.

Mineral fertilizer industry. The use of nitrogen, phosphorus and potash fertilizers largely determines the level of development of agriculture in countries and regions. Mineral fertilizers are the most mass-produced products of the chemical industry.

The pharmaceutical industry is becoming increasingly important in protecting the health of the world's growing population. The growing demand for its products is due to:

1) the rapid aging of the population, primarily in many industrial countries of the world, which requires the introduction of new complex drugs in medical practice;

2) an increase in cardiovascular and oncological diseases, as well as the emergence of new diseases (AIDS), which require more and more effective drugs to combat;

3) the creation of new generations of drugs due to the adaptation of microorganisms to their old forms.

rubber industry. The products of this industry are increasingly focused on meeting the needs of the population.

In addition to the many household rubber products (rugs, toys, hoses, shoes, balls, etc.) that have become common consumer goods, there is a growing demand for rubber components for many types of engineering products. This includes land-based non-rail transport: tires for cars, bicycles, tractors, aircraft chassis, etc. Rubber products such as pipelines, gaskets, insulators and others are essential for many types of products. This explains the vast range of rubber products (it exceeds 0.5 million items).

Among the most mass-produced products of the industry, the production of tires (tires) for various types of transport stands out. The output of these products is determined by the number of vehicles manufactured in the world, estimated at many tens of millions of units of each of them. The production of tires consumes 3/4 of natural and synthetic rubber, a significant part of the synthetic fibers used for the production of cord fabric - tire carcass. In addition, to obtain rubber as a filler, various types of soot are needed - also a product of one of the branches of the chemical industry - soot. All this determines the close relationship of the rubber industry with other branches of the chemical industry.

The level of development of the country's economy can be judged by the level of development of the chemical industry. It supplies the economy with raw materials and materials, makes it possible to apply new technological processes in all sectors of the economy. The intra-industry composition of the chemical industry is very complex:

1) basic chemistry,

2) chemistry of organic synthesis.

Pharmaceutics, photochemistry, household chemicals, perfumery belong to fine chemistry and can use both organic and inorganic raw materials. The intersectoral ties of the chemical industry are extensive - there is no such sector of the economy with which it would not be connected. Scientific complex, electric power industry, metallurgy, fuel industry, light industry - chemistry - textile industry, agriculture, food industry, construction, engineering, military-industrial complex. The chemical industry can use a variety of raw materials: oil, gas, coal, timber, minerals, even air. Therefore, chemical enterprises can be located everywhere. The geography of the chemical industry is extensive: the production of potash fertilizers gravitates towards the areas of extraction of raw materials, the production of nitrogen fertilizers - to the consumer, the production of plastics, polymers, fibers, rubber - to the areas of processing of oil raw materials. The chemical industry is one of the leading branches of the scientific and technological revolution, along with mechanical engineering, this is the most dynamic branch of modern industry.

The main features of the placement are similar to the features of the placement of mechanical engineering; 4 main regions have developed in the world chemical industry. The largest of them is Western Europe. Especially rapidly in many countries of the region, the chemical industry began to develop after the Second World War, when petrochemistry began to lead in the structure of the industry. As a result, petrochemical and oil refining centers are located in seaports and on the routes of main oil pipelines.

The second most important region is the United States, where the chemical industry is characterized by great diversity. The main factor in the location of enterprises was the raw material factor, which largely contributed to the territorial concentration of chemical production. The third region is East and Southeast Asia, Japan plays a particularly important role (with powerful petrochemistry based on imported oil). The importance of China and the newly industrialized countries, which specialize mainly in the production of synthetic products and semi-finished products, is also growing.

The fourth region is the CIS countries, which have a diverse chemical industry, focused on both raw materials and energy factors.

Chemical Technology

Chemical technology is the science of the processes and methods of chemical processing of raw materials and intermediate products.

It turns out that all the processes associated with the processing and production of substances, despite their external diversity, are divided into several related, similar groups, in each of them similar apparatuses are used. There are 5 such groups in total - these are chemical, hydromechanical, thermal, mass transfer and mechanical processes.

In any chemical production, we meet simultaneously all or almost all of the listed processes. Let us consider, for example, a technological scheme in which product C is obtained from two initial liquid components A and B according to the reaction: A + B-C.

The initial components pass through the filter, in which they are cleaned of solid particles. Then they are pumped into the reactor, preheated to the reaction temperature in the heat exchanger. The reaction products, including the component and impurities of unreacted components, are sent for separation to a distillation column. Along the height of the column, there is a multiple exchange of components between the flowing liquid and the vapor rising from the boiler. In this case, the vapors are enriched with components having a lower boiling point than the product. Coming out of the upper part of the column pairs of components are condensed in the dephlegmator. Part of the condensate is returned to the reactor, and the other part (phlegm) is sent to irrigate the distillation column. The pure product is removed from the boiler, being cooled to normal temperature in the heat exchanger.

Establishing the patterns of each of the groups of chemical engineering processes opened the green light for the chemical industry. After all, now the calculation of any, the newest chemical production is carried out according to well-known methods and it is almost always possible to use mass-produced devices.

The rapid development of chemical technology has become the basis for the chemicalization of the national economy of our country. New branches of chemical production are being created, and most importantly, the processes and apparatus of chemical technology are being widely introduced into other branches of the national economy and into everyday life. They underlie the production of fertilizers, building materials, gasoline and synthetic fibers. Any modern production, no matter what it produces - cars, airplanes or children's toys, is not complete without chemical technology.

One of the most interesting problems that can be solved with the help of chemical technology in the near future is the use of the resources of the World Ocean. Ocean water contains almost all the elements necessary for man. It contains 5.5 million tons of gold and 4 billion tons of uranium, huge amounts of iron, manganese, magnesium, tin, lead, silver and other elements, the reserves of which are depleted on land. But for this it is necessary to create completely new processes and apparatuses of chemical technology.

Conclusion

The chemical industry, like mechanical engineering, is one of the most complex industries in terms of its structure. It clearly distinguishes semi-product industries (basic chemistry, organic chemistry), basic (polymeric materials - plastics and synthetic resins, chemical fibers, synthetic rubber, mineral fertilizers), processing (synthetic dyes of varnishes and paints, pharmaceutical, photochemical, reagents, household chemicals, rubber products). The range of its products is about 1 million items, types, types, brands of products.

Chemical technology is the science of the most economical and environmentally sound methods and means of processing raw natural materials into consumer products and intermediate products.

It is divided into technology of inorganic substances (production of acids, alkalis, soda, silicate materials, mineral fertilizers, salts, etc.) and technology of organic substances (synthetic rubber, plastics, dyes, alcohols, organic acids, etc.);

Bibliography

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 increase in the unit capacity of units and assemblies

The need to increase the unit capacity of the nodes is associated with an increase in the demand for products and limited space for equipment placement. With an increase in capacity, capital costs and depreciation deductions per unit of finished products are reduced. The number of service personnel is reduced, which leads to a reduction in the wage fund and an increase in labor productivity. An increase in the unit capacity of units is most typical for continuous large-tonnage production. In the case of the production of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, this is not a determining factor in most cases.

 development of environmentally friendly technologies that reduce or eliminate environmental pollution by production waste (creation of non-waste technologies)

This is a very important problem, especially for industries associated with chemical transformations of substances, in particular in the production of biologically active substances and substances included in the final final forms. At the same time, in the case of the direct production of medicines and cosmetics, the problem of waste is not so important. This is due to the fact that, in essence, these industries should be waste-free, and waste generation is possible only if the technological regulations are violated.

 Use of combined technological schemes

This problem is very important when organizing the production of small-tonnage products. For small-scale production, in particular for the industry of fine organic synthesis, a very large range of products is typical. At the same time, a number of products can be produced using similar technological methods on the same technological scheme. The same takes place in the case of the production of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, when the same technological scheme can produce similar release forms (tablets, creams, solutions) of various names.

 Increasing the energy efficiency of production

In the case of the production of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, this problem is not of great importance, since in the vast majority of cases the processes proceed at room temperature and do not have a high thermal effect.

The next important issue that we must consider from the point of view of general issues of the organization of production is the conditions that affect the choice of instrumentation for the chemical-technological process and the method of organizing the process.

1.2.3. Conditions influencing the choice of hardware design of the chemical-technological process

The quality of the target product is determined by strict observance of the norms of technological regulations and the competent choice of the main equipment necessary for the implementation of production. The main equipment is the equipment in which the main technological stages take place: chemical reactions, preparation of initial components, production of target end products, etc. The rest of the equipment that is necessary to ensure the technological process is auxiliary. Thus, the first task to be solved in the organization of production is the choice of technological equipment. This choice is determined by a number of conditions, some of which are given below.

 Process temperature and thermal effect

The choice of coolant and the design of the elements of the heat exchange surface are determined.

 Pressure

Determines the material of the apparatus and the design features of the equipment in terms of mechanical strength.

 Process environment

Determines the choice of apparatus material in terms of corrosion resistance and the method of corrosion protection. In the case of the production of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, the choice of apparatus material is determined by the requirements for the quality of the final product, especially in terms of the content of impurities of metals and organic compounds.

 Aggregate state of reacting substances

Determines the method of organizing the process (periodic or continuous), the method of loading the initial components and unloading the final products, the design of the mixing devices.

 Process kinetics

Determines the way the process is organized and the type of equipment.

 Way of organizing the process

Specifies the choice of equipment type.